Types of Muscle

Skeletal Muscle - Attached to Bones

Smooth Muscle - Organs - move food etc. urine

Cardiac Heart Muscle - Move heart

1. Striated 
2. Movement
3. Posture
4. Joint Stability
5. Heat Generation

Skeletal Muscle Structure

Figure 12.1

1. Epimysium continuous w/ tendon
2. Blood - Capillaries long & winding
3. Single Motor Unit

Skeletal Muscle Microscopic Aspects

Figure 12.10

• Actin: I Bands - Light
• Myosin: A Bands - Dark

Neuromuscular Junction

Figure 12.16

• Neuron Releases Acetylcholine into synaptic cleft
• Binds to receptors - membrane depolarizes - T tubules
• Calcium is released > Binds to troponin > Sliding filament theory happens
• Eg. Botulism  / acetylcholine esterase

• Calcium enters cell + binds to troponin
• Troponin changes shape & pulls on tropomyosin
• Tropomyosin shifts & exposes binding sties for myosin heads
• Myosin heads attach to Actin & pull
• ATP helps to detach myosin head and reset
• EG. Rigor Mortis - muscles stay contracted

1. Contracts all or none, but not entire muscle
2. Sends signal to x number or motor units
• Eg. Lifting heavy items uses more motor units

1. Twitch - Causes muscle to contact quickly
• Eg. Electrodes on arm, electric current sent through
2. Treppe - "Warm Up" - Sending signal slower
3. Wave Summation - Sending signal slower and and slower (Pushed button faster)
4. Tetanus - Continuous signal causing contraction (Smooth, sustained contraction)
5. Fatigue - Only remain tetanus before so long, then contractions stop

1. ATP
2. Creatine
3. Glucose - Cellular Respiration
• Glucose > ATP
• FAT > ATP

Muscle Fiber Types

Figure 12.3

• Type I - Red
• Slow Twitch
• Myoglobin - pigment in muscle
• Endurance muscles (Marathon Runners)
• Mitochondria
• Increased Capillary Supply
• Type II - White
• Fast Twitch
• Large Diameter 
• Quick Reaction muscles (Sprinters)
• Fatigue Quickly
• Type II A - Intermediate

• VO2 Max - Amount of O2 uptake by body during Exercise
• Average Person - 50ML O2 Min/KG of Body Weight
• Endurance Athlete - 86ML O2 min/KG
• More Mitochondria
• Enzymes
• More Capallaries
• Higher Lactate Threshold
• Strength Training - increases size of muscle cells
• Actin and Myosin 

• Age
• Bed-Ridden
• Space Flight
• Cast (Broken Bone)

Cardiac Muscle

1. Less obvious striations
2. Intercalated Discs
• Contain Gap Junctions
3. Functions as a entire unit
4. Autorhythmic - No need for nervous stimulation to contract

Smooth Muscle

1. Synapses en Passant
• Neurotransmitters pass through bulges of muscle
• Single Units of smooth muscle digestion
• Gap juntions - contract as unit
• Multiunit smooth muscle (ciliary muscle around lens of eye)

1. Erythrocytes - Red Blood Cells - Carry Oxygen - 45%
2. Leukocytes - White Blood Cells - Fight Infection 
3. Thrombocytes -  Platelet - clotting
• Leukocytes & Thrombocytes combined <1%
4. Plasma - Transport nutrients, wastes and hormones

Male - 5-6L

Female - 4-5L

• Transport nutrients etc.
• Plasma Proteins:
• Albumin - osmotic pressue; pull H2O from tissues into blood 
• Eg. Edema
• Fibrinogen - clotting
• Globulins - 
• Alpha/Beta globulolins - transport fats & fat soluable vitamins
• Gamma globulins - anitbodies produced by white blood cells

• Biconcave
• Hemoglobin - Pigment & binds w/ O2
• w/ O2 - Red
• w/o O2 - Blue
• Erythropoiesis - formation of red blood cells in bone marrow 
• Formed in larger bones of femur, humerus, pelvis, sternum
• Erythropoietin
• Hormone stimulates erythropoiesis
• Produced by kidney
• When not getting enough O2 blood becomes hypoxic

1. Hemorrhagic Anemia - Caused by hemorrhage
2. Hemolytic Anemia - Caused by mismatched blood transfusion & venoms
3. Aplastic Anemia - Red marrow degrades
4. Iron deficient anemia - lack of nutrition
5. Pernicious Anemia - Vitamin B12 must meet up w/ intrinsic factor (in stomach)
6. Thalassemia - genetic - mediterranean ancestry
7. Sickle Cell Anemia - genetic African and Mediterranean and Malaria 

1. Polycythemia vera - caused by bone marrow cancer
• Hematocrit 80%
2. Secondary ploycythemia
3. Blood doping - Used by athletes

• Granolocytes - have granules
• Neutrophils - segmented, multilobed nucleus - fights bacterial infections
• Eosinophils - red granules (reddish tint) - fights parasitic infections & allergic reactions
• Basophils - Blue Granules (bluish tint) - alerts other cells to immune alert
• Agranulocytes - no granules
• Lymphocytes - nucleus almost size of cell - deals with viral infections & tumors, produces antibodies
• Monocytes - Very large bilobed nucleus - fights chronic infections eg. mono tuberculosis

Hemolythic Disease of the Newborn (HDN) - Mom's anti D antibodies cross the placenta and attack the baby. Happens if mom was exposed to + Blood

Damaged Cells > collagen exposed > chemicals released > platelets adhere to collagen > form platelet plug

Cells

• Clotting Factors - Activate clotting factors > activates >
• Prothrombin - thrombin > activates >
• Fibrinogen - Fibrin > Clot

• Missing clotting factor VIII
• plasminogen > plasmin - degrades fibrin
• TPA - Tissue plasminogen activator

Body > Superior and Inferior Vena Cava > Right Atrium > Tricuspid Valve > Right Ventricle > Pulmonary Semilunar Valve > Pulmonary Trunk > Pulmonary Arteries > Lungs > Pulmonary Veins > Left Atrium > Bicuspid Valve > Left Ventricle > Aortic Seminlunar Valve > Aorta > Body

Foramen Ovale - Connects Right Atrium to Left Atrium, bypasses lungs

Ductus Arteriosus - From Pulmonary Trunk to Aorta

• AV Valves - LUB sound, control ventricle pressure
• Tricuspid (right)
• Bicuspid (left)
• Semilunar Valves - DUB sound, control atrial pressure
• Pulmonary (right)
• Aortic (left)

• Intercalated discs (dark lines seen on slide) - one cell is butting up against another
• Gap junctions allow sodium & potassium to flow freely
• Autorhythmic - No need for nervous stimulation to contract

1. SA Node (sinoatrial) - Natural Pacemaker, initiates signalsm negative charges in Atria
• Atria Contract
2. AV Node - Negative charges in Ventricles, Atria are returning to positive when this begins
• Step 1 to contracting ventricles
3. AV Bundle 
• Step 2 to contracting ventricles
4. Purkinje Fibers
• Step 3 to contracting ventricles

Artificial Pacemaker

• Needed if ventricles aren't contracting correctly, not needed if atrial contractions are issue

1. On-Demand - Only sends signals when needed
2. Fixed/Variable rate - Constantly running

1. If signals are incorrect due to electric shock a defibulator could cause sodium/potassium pump to reset
2. If signal are incorrect due to heart attack, may be a blockage Eg. coronary artery
3. Silent Ischemia - No real symptoms of restricted blood flow
4. Athrosclerosis - Build up of plaque in arteries
• Blood vessel walls get fatty streaks due to monocytes embedding themselves in the wall of a vessel and becomeing macrophages. They grab on to LDL's (Low Density Lipoproteins) that carry cholesterol
• Becomes a solid mass over time
• Need HDL's to carry cholestorol away from vessel walls, can be increased through vigorous exercise

• Arteries
• Arterioles
• Capillaries - Exchange between blood & tissues (nutrients, wasts, gas, etc)
• Venules
• Veins - Have Valves

Hydrostatic & Osmotic

Pressure

1. Hydrostatic Pressure- forces water out of capillary, pressure generated by heartbeat
2. Osmotic Pressure - Pulls water back into the capillary
• If doesn't happen correctly Edema (fluid build up) occurs
• Caused by High Blood Pressure, obstruction, & decrease in plasma proteins
• Low plasma proteins - caused by liver or kidney problems. Either liver doesn't form plasma proteins or kidney lets out into urine
• EG. Elephantitis -  parasite in the lymphatic system causes blockage

• ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) doens't stimulate urination
• Increased water reabsorption in kidneys
• Formed in pituitary, but acted upon in kidneys
• Renin - Angiotensin - Aldosterone System
• Kidneys release Renin > Activates Angiotensinogen in blood > (^ BP) Angiotensin II (Strong Vasocontrictor) > (^ BP) Aldosterone released from adrenal glands > Inreased NaCl & Water resabsorption in kidneys

• Atria - Stretch
• Increase in Potassium excretion @ kidneys 
• Decrease in BP

• Length of blood vessels
• Blood viscosity
• Vessel Diameter
• Vasconstriction
• Vasodilation
• Can be changed immediately by body

Caridac Output

&

 Frank Starling Law of the Heart

Cardiac Output:

C.O = Heart Rate (BPM) x Stroke Volume ( mL blood pumped per beat)

Eg. 70 bpm x 75 mL/beat = 5.25 L/min

Frank Starling Law of the Heart - Cardiac Muscle contracts w/ more force when stretched. Increased Blood Volume

Tachycardia 

&

Bradycardia

• Tacycardia - Fast Heart Rate
• Bradycardia - Slow Heart Rate

• How much higher cardiac output could be
• EG. 300 g from non-athlete. 500g athlete

• Syphyngomanometer - Measure blood pressure on walls of arteries (brachial artery)
• Systolic Pressure -  Ventricles contracting. First heard when blood starts to pass through brachial artery, 
• Diastolic Pressure - Ventricles relax

• Aorta, carotids
• Medulla oblongata
• Vaso constricts/dilates

1. Upper Limit: 120/80
2. Pre-Hypertension: 121-139/81-89
3. Hypertension Stage I: 140-159/90-99
4. Hypertension Stage II: 160+/100+

1. Hypovolemic Shock - Low volume - caused by hemorrage
• Tacycardia - renin will kick in
2. Septic Shock - Infections, toxins
• Vasodilation, pressure down dramatically
• May not be able to save victim
3. Anaphylactic Shock - Food allergies, bee stings, venoms
4. Neurogenic Shock - Damage to nervous system
5. Cardiogenic Shock - Heart Attack, erythrymia etc.

1. Skin - Stratified Squamous, keeps out external bacteria etc.
2. Gastric Acid - HCI
3. Phagocytes - identify self from foreign
4. Interferons - Cells infected by a virus produce interferons (can be a cloned gene product)

• Identify Self from foreign
• Neutrophils, monocytes leave the bloodstream and enter tissues (perform diapedesis)
• Macrophages
• Kupffer Cells - Liver
• Alveolar macrophages - Lungs
• Microglia - CNS

Adaptive Immunity (Specific Immunity)

Characteristics

1. Antigens
2. T Lymphocytes
3. B Lymphocytes

• Produced in Thymus
• Attack cells infected by virus or fungus
• Transplanted or cancerous cells
• Lower the age, lower the ability

• Produced in bone marrow
• Attack bacterial and viral infections
• Some secrete antibodies
• Some secrete memory cells

• Active Immunity - Vaccines, rabies, polio, measles vaccine
• Passive Immunity - Antibodies from another person or animal
• Mom > Fetus
• Anti-Serum after rabies bite

• Immune system attacks own organism cells that are healthy

1. Immediate Hypersensitivity
• Foods, bee stings, pollens
• Pollen increases with higher temps
• Soot on pollen causes reactions
• Dust mite Feces causes issues
2. Delayed Hypersensitivity
• Contact Dermatitis - Poison Ivy, Oak, Sumac