Term
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Definition
-first person to describe a cell
-was looking at the dead cells of cork |
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Term
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Definition
| -observed cells through the single lens microscope that he built |
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Term
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Definition
| Bacterial size to that of an egg yolk |
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Term
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Definition
| -a technique for producing visible images of objects too small to be seen by the naked eye |
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Term
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Definition
-uses light to illuminate object
-less powerful
-can produce a variety of image types
-resolution limit 0.2 microns (0.002mm)
-magnification limit 1000x |
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Term
| Types of Light Microscope Images |
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Definition
-bright field
-dark field
-fluorescence
-differential interference |
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Term
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Definition
| -uses electrons to illuminate the specimen, much more powerful |
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Term
| Types of Electron Microscopes |
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Definition
Transmission Electron microscope
-focuses on a thin section, cross section
Scanning Electron Microscope
-shows the surface of what is being looked at |
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Term
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Definition
-takes cells apart to study their components through the use of centrifuge- separates the major organelles
-the faster the centrifuge is spun, the smaller the components that separate are |
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Term
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Definition
| -breaking apart cells to find out what DNA is doing |
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Term
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Definition
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells
2. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms
3. Cells arise only from the division of preexisting cells |
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Term
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Definition
-occur in virtually every kind of organism
-some wreak havoc, others cause no sign of presence
-often highly specific to host, can only reproduce when they enter the cell
-are not cells! |
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Term
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Definition
-all cells are bound by the plasma membrane
-central area also contains proteins that maintain DNA structure and enzymes that assist with DNA replication utilizing RNA |
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Term
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Definition
-lipid bilayer with embedded proteins
-transports, metabolizes food into ATP |
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Term
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Definition
| -contains the cytosol and organelles |
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Term
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Definition
| -aqueous solution containing ions and organic molecules |
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Term
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Definition
-protein based framework of eukaryotes and prokaryotes
-network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm
-organizes the structures and activities of the cell
-provides mechanical support and maintains shape of cell
-fibres act like a geodesic dome to stabilize a balance between opposing forces
-anchorage for many organelles and cytosolic enzymes
-dynamic, dismantling in one part and reassembling in another to change cell shape |
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Term
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Definition
-"before nucleus"
-contain no nucleus
-DNA contained in the nucleoid
-no boundry from the cytoplasm
-smaller than human cells
- contain ribosomes
-sometimes surrounded by a cell wall
-sometimes have pilli, flagella, mesosomes, and photosynthetic membranes |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA containing central region of a prokaryotic cell with no boundry |
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Term
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Definition
-collection if interrelated internal membranous sacs that divide the cell into structural and functional components
-functions include synthesis and modification of proteins and transport of proteins, synthesis of lipids and detoxification of toxins
-membranes are either actually connected or connected by vesicles
-includes endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear envelope, golgi complex, lysosomes, vesicles and plasma membrane |
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Term
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Definition
-use information in mRNA to construct amino acids into protein
-have large and small subunits
-use mRNA info to make amino acids into proteins
-some are freely suspended in the cytosol, others are attached to membranes
-proteins made on free ribosomes con travel many places
-many ribosomes are attached to the ER |
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Term
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Definition
-protects the cell
-often coated in layer of polysaccharides called the glycocalyx |
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Term
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Definition
-coating on cell wall
-loosely attached- slime layer
-firmly attached- capsule
-protects cell, sometimes allows it to attach to another surface |
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Term
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Definition
-long, threadlike protein helically shaped fibers push the cell through a liquid
-assist with motility of the cell
-0.25 microns in diameter, 10-200 microns long
-beat in a smooth, s shaped wave- undulatory movement
-uses dyenin |
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Term
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Definition
-hair like shafts of protein that attach the cell to other surfaces
-sex pilis attaches to bacterium during mating |
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Term
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Definition
-include protists, fungi, animals and plants
-have true nucleus, membrane enclosed
-contain plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, organelles, endomembrane system, cytoskeleton
-sometimes contain cell wall, cell matrix, some organelles and flagella |
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Term
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Definition
-eukaryotic cell's genetic library
-separated from cytoplasm by 2 layer nuclear envelope
-carries most of the genes in a eukaryotic cell
-lamins are protein filaments that reinforce animal cells
-nuclear pore complexes are impeded
-largest protein complex in cell, controls transport of materials
-contains nucleoplasm and chromatin
-eukaryotic nucleus contains more DNA than prokaryotic
-contain nucleoli
-synthesizes mRNA |
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Term
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Definition
| -large, octagonally symmetrical cylindrical structures made of different proteins, called nucleoporins |
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Term
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Definition
| -liquid or semi liquid substance in nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
- fibrous DNA and associated proteins, appear as diffuse mass
-coils up into chromosomes for division |
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Term
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Definition
-Interconnected network of membranous channels and vesicles (cisternae) each formed by a single membrane surrounding the space called the ER lumen
-rough and smooth ER are usually connected |
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Term
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Definition
-named for the ribosomes covering it
-proteins made here enter the ER lumen where they fold and where chemical modifications occur
-proteins then travel to other parts of the cell, next stop often golgi complex
-outer nuclear envelope membrane is closely related in structure and dunction
-also membrane factory- membrane bound proteins synthesized here
-as the ER membrane expands, parts can be transferred as transport vesicles to other components of the endomembrane system |
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Term
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Definition
-has no ribosomes, has various functions in the cytoplasm
-synthesizes lipds that become part of the cell membrane, including phospholipids, oils and steroids
-catalyzes a key step in mobilization of glucose from stored glycogen in the liver
-helps detoxify drugs and poison, freqent exposure increases tolerance
-muscle cells are rich in enzymes that pump calcium ions from the cytosol to the cisternae |
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Term
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Definition
-transport vesicles from the ER (manufactured protein) go to the golgi apparatus for modification
-center of manufacturing, warehousing, sorting and shipping
-extensive in cells specialized for secretion
-made of flattened membranous sacs called citernae
-membrane of each cisternae separates its internal space from the cytosol
-Cis side is the receiving side, receives materials by fusing with vesicles
-trans side is the leaving side, it buds off vesicles that travel to other sites
-during protein transit between the sides, products from the ER are modified to reach their final state
-can manufacture its own macro molecules
-tags, sorts and packages materials intro transport vesicles |
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Term
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Definition
-are produced by inital synthesis at the rough ER
-a membrane bound sac of hydrolytic enzymes that digest macro molecules
-look like slightly dense vesicles
-enzymes can hydrolize proteins, fats, polysaccharides and nucleic acids
-work best at pH5- pump H+ ions from cytosol to lumen of lysosome
-rupturing a few has no impact on the cell, more can cause autodigestion
-can fuse with food vacuoles, or with other organelles or parts of the cell
-this process is autophagy and refreshes the cell |
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Term
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Definition
| -vesicles (microbodies) and vacuoles (larger) are membrane bound sacs with varied functions |
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Term
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Definition
| -from phagocytosis, fuse with lysosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| -found in freshwater protists, control water balance by pumping out excess water from cell interor |
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Term
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Definition
| -are found in many mature plant cells, one function is to keep the plants structure |
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Term
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Definition
-the membrane surrounding the central vacuole (tonoplast) is selective in its transport of solutes into the central vacuole
-tonoplats distinguish other vacuoles
-functions: stockpiling proteins or inorganic ions, depositing metabolic by-products, storing pigments, storing defensive compounds against herbivores
-endomembrane system plays key role in the synthesis of macromolecules in the cell
-the various components modify macromolecules for their various functions |
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Term
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Definition
-site of cellular respiration, generate ATP from catabolism of sugars, fats and other fuels in the presence of oxygen
-not part of endomembrane system
-parts include cristae, matrix, inner and outer membrane
-come from maternal line of descent
-shape can change, can reproduce by dividing in 2
-move along tracks in the cytoskeleton |
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Term
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Definition
-found in plants and eukaryotic algae, are the site of photosynthesis
-not part of endomembrane system
-contain thylakoids in stacks called granum, surrounded by stroma and an inner and outer membrane
-shape can change, can reproduce by dividing in 2
-move along tracks in the cytoskeleton |
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Term
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Definition
-vesicle like structures in plant and animal cells
-single membrane bound compartment
-enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, forming hydrogen peroxide which converts to water (safe molecule) |
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Term
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Definition
-hollow tubes 25nm in diameter
-composed of tubulin
-maintain cell shape, cell motility, chromosome movement and organelle movement
-another function is as tracks that guide motor proteins carrying organelles to their destination |
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Term
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Definition
-two intertwined strands of actin, 7nm in diameter
-maintain cell shape, muscle contractions, cytoplasmic streaming, cell motility and cell division |
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Term
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Definition
-fibrous proteins super coiled, 8-12nm in diameter
-keratin proteins
-maintain cell shape and provide organelle anchorage |
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Term
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Definition
-microtubules grow out of the centrosome (near the nucleus)
-within the centrosome there is a pair of centrioles that replicate during cell division |
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Term
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Definition
-assist with motility of cell
-exist in large number, 0.25 microns in diameter and 2-20 microns long
-beat in an oarlike power stroke followed by a recovery stroke
-use dynein |
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Term
|
Definition
-the bending of cilia and flagella is driven by the arms of motor protein dynein
-ATP supplies energy, dynein arms alternately grab, move and release the outer microtubules
-protein cross-links limit sliding and the force is expressed as bending |
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Term
| Cilia and Flagella Ultrastructure |
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Definition
-core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane
-nine doublets of microtubules arranged around a part at the center
-flexible wheels of protein connect outer doublets to eachother and to the core
-outer doublets are also connected by motor proteins
-anchored in the cell by the basal body (centriole) |
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Term
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Definition
-thousands of actin filaments are arranged parallel to eachother
-thicker filaments, composed of motor protein, myosin, interdigitate with the thinner actin fibres
-myosin molecules walk along the actin filament, pulling stacks of actin fibres together and shortening the cell |
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Term
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Definition
-in plant cells, actin-myosin interactions and the sol-gel transformations drive cytoplasmic streaming
-the cytoplasm is in constant motion |
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Term
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Definition
-cell junctions seal the spaces between cells and provide direct communication between cells
-3 types |
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Term
| Anchoring Junctions (Desmosomes) |
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Definition
-two cells attached y intercellular filaments
-form button like pots, rivet cells together
-desmosomes- intermediate filaments anchor the junction in the underlying cytoplasm
-adherens junctions- microfilaments anchor the cell
-most common in tissues subject to tearing |
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Term
|
Definition
-prevent materials as small as ions from moving between cells
-form a belt around cell- forms a seal, direct fusion of proteins
-there are regions of intercellular space
-seal cell layers that cover internal organs, the outer surface of the body or the layers that line internal cavities and ducts |
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Term
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Definition
-intercellular connections between animal cells
-like plasmodesmata- small molecules can pass
-channels provide almost instantaneous communication between animal cells, like plasmodesmata allows in plant cells |
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Term
| To survive, all cells require.... |
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Definition
-a complete set of genetic instructions
-to be able to produce the required additional molecules
-to be able to direct life processes
-genetic instructions are coded in the DNA of cells |
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Term
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Definition
- for growth in multicelluar organisms
-for repair
-for development, in early stages, one cell divides and specializes |
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Term
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Definition
-activities of a cell from one cell division to the next
-the cell grows, adding more organelles, etc.
-DNA is replicated, this makes a copy of the instructions
-the cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells |
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Term
| To Divide, cells must.... |
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Definition
-transmit a complete, exact copy of the genetic information (DNA)
-transmit materials necessary for cells to survive and use genetic information, daughter cell must get all organelles which function independently from mitosis |
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Term
| Prokaryotic Cells and the Cell Cycle |
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Definition
-contain no membrane bound organelles
-cell division is through binary fission
-prokaryotic chromosome is a circilar loop
-the chromosome is replicated and attached to plasma membrane at a different nearby point
-as it is replicating, the cell elongates, new plasma membrane is added in between the chromosomes, pushing them to opposite sides of the cell
- the plasma membrane grows inward at the middle of the cell
-parent cell is divided into two identical daughter cells
-occurs very quickly |
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Term
| Eukaryotic Cells and the Cell Cycle |
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Definition
-has membrane bound organelles including a nucleus
-cell division of somatic cells is called mitotic cell division
-eukaryotic chromosomes contain almost all the genetic information |
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Term
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Definition
-chromosomes are long thread like linear structures that are highly condensed during mitosis, DNA + proteins,number of which varying by species
-structure is stands of linear DNA
-human cells have 46 strands (chromosomes) with an average length of 4cm
-1 cell=3m of DNA, adult has a total of 2*10^3m of DNA |
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Term
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Definition
-non condensed DNA with no defined structure
-many proteins are bound; protect, packaging, duplication, transcription,regulation and modification
-DNA and a bound protein make up chromtatin (50% of DNA) |
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Term
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Definition
-DNA molecules in extended uncondensed form= chromatin
-cell can only use DNA to produce molecules when in extended state
-DNA can only be read as chromatin |
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Term
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Definition
-chromatin becomes chromosomes
-DNA molecules condense to form chromosomes prior to division
-each chromosome is a single molecule of DNA
-easier to sort and organize DNA into daughter cells |
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Term
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Definition
-division of somatic cells in eukaryotic organisms
-a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (cellular reproduction) |
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Term
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Definition
-organisms have a specific number of sets in diploid and haploid cells
-mitosis and meiosis lead to different ploidy outcomes
-refers to the number of pairs of chromosomes in a cell
-haploid (n), diploid (2n), triploid (3n)
-polyploidy: more than 2 complete sets, common in plants, not animals |
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Term
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Definition
| -2 major phases- interphase and mititic cell division |
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Term
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Definition
-3 stages, DNA uncondensed (chromatin)
-G1: First Gap, size increases, organelles may replicat, normal growth and development
-S: DNA Synthesis, DNA is replicated, synthesis of proteins associated with DNA, ploidy does not change
-G2: Second Gap, cell prepares for division, synthesis of proteins associated with mitosis, cell commited to divide
-occurs before the stages of mitosis
-Nucleus is well defined, nucleoli are present, the centrosomes are replicated (animal cells only), microtubules extend from centrosomes (aster) and chromosomes have duplicated but not condesed |
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Term
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Definition
-has 5 stages
-prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase |
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Term
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Definition
-chromatin fibers become tightly coiled chromosomes
-nucleoli disappear
-mitotic spindle begins to form
-centrosomes move away from each other |
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Term
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Definition
-nuclear envelope fragments
-some microtubules connect with those from the opposite pole, provides rigidity
-kinetochore is where the microtubule connects to the chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
-centrosomes now at opposite poles
-chromosomes at metaphase plate
-centromeres of the chromosomes are on the metaphase plate
-kinetochores of each chromatid connected to microtubules from different pole |
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Term
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Definition
-begins when paired centromeres separate
-chromosomes (1/2 of each sister chromatid pair) move to opposite poles
-they move centromere first
-poles of the cell move further apart at the same time |
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Term
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Definition
-arise from 2 microtubule organizing centers (centrosomes)
-spontaneously arise from tubulin dimmers
-microtubules arising from MO center have opposite polarity, meet at equatorial plate
-some microtubules are bound together by proteins
-chromatids attach to microtubules via kinetochores, which are protein complexes, walk down microtubules towards organizing centers
-pull chromatids apart after centromere breaks down- beginning of anaphase |
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Term
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Definition
-daughter nuclei form at the two poles
-nuclear envelope reforms
-chromatin fibers become less consensed
-nucleolus reforms
-mitosis is now complete, cytokinesis is well underway |
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Term
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Definition
-the process of splitting daughter cells apart
-mitosis is the division of the nucleus
-is not a part of mitosis
-is optional |
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Term
| Regulation of the Cell Cycle |
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Definition
-timing and rate of cell division in different parts of a plant or animal are crucial to normal development
-includes skin calls, liver cells if needed, nerve and muscle cells do not, these cell to cell differences are the result of regulation
-the distinct events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct cell cycle control system
-these molecules trigger and coordinate key events in the cell cycle
- the control cycle has a built in clock, but it is also regulated by external adjustments and internal controls
-prevents uncontrolled growth |
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Term
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Definition
-G1 restriction point: most important
-if the cell receives the go ahead, it will complete the cell cycle and divide
-if it does not it will exit the cycle and switch into a non dividing state called G0 phase |
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Term
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Definition
-specialized cells stop reproduction to perform specialized functions
-dont need to divide
-can be turned on and off
-examples: nerve cells, liver cells (retain ability to), some muscle cells |
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Term
| Internal and External Clues |
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Definition
-kinetochore- signal when they are all connected so anaphase does not begin too early and leave a chromosome behind
-growth factors in media may be needed
-cells crowded together stop dividing
-most animal cells must be anchored to divide |
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Term
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Definition
-uncontrolled meiotic growth
-dont function properly |
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Term
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Definition
-1n, calls with one complete set of chromosomes
-unfertilized cells are haploid
-sperm cells are haploid
-haploid sperm fuses with haploid egg to get dipolid zygote (fertilized egg)
-male parent provides 23 chromosomes, as does female |
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Term
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Definition
-2n=cells with two complete sets of chromosomes
-almost all bodt cells are diploid
-diploid human cells have 46 chromosomes
-dipoid cells DO have pairs of homologous chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
-individual inherits all its genes from one parent
-offspring are genetically identical to parent
-e.g. one celled organisms divide, hydra budding, self pollinating flowers, some lizards, aphids, aspens shoot up from roots
-genetic variation comes only from mutations
-greatly reduced ability to evolve |
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Term
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Definition
-each new individual gets 1/2 genetic information from each parent
-offspring are genetically different from both parents
-sexual reproduction produces greater variation: evolution requires pre-existing genetic variation, sexual reproduction provides much of the pre-existing variation |
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Term
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Definition
-animal cycles have a dominant dipoid phase
-plants tend to have half diploid half haploid
-fungi and algae have dominant haploid
-pg. 191 |
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Term
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Definition
-somatic cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes
-homologous chromosomes
-each chromosome has many genes
-each gene occupies a specific locus on a specific chromosome
-homologous chromosomes have homologous genes at homologous loci (genes need not be identical) |
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Term
|
Definition
-sane size
-contain same gene loci
-may contain different alleles
-a diploid nucleus contains two sets of homologs (2n) (one set from each parent)
-each line on a chromosome is a loci, same gene, perhaps different allele |
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Term
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Definition
-one pair of homologous chromosomes that are different
-human females have a true homologous pair- XX
-human males have XY
-X and Y are different, Y has 13 known genes, X has 179
-Called sex chromosomes
-other chromosomes are autosomes |
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Term
|
Definition
-two sucessive nuclear divisions occur
-meiosis I (reduction) and meiosis II (division)
-produces 4 haploid cells
-meiosis 1 reduces the ploidy level to n
-meiosis 2 divides the remaining chromosomes in a mitosis-like process
-during interphase the chromosomes are replicated to form sister chromatids, genetically identical and joined at the centromere
-single centrosome is replicated |
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Term
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Definition
-the chromosomes condense and homologous chromosomes pair up to form tetrads
-in synaapsis, special proteins attach homologous chromosomes tightly toherher, lined up properly
-at sever sites the chromatids of homologous chromosomes are crossed (chiasmata) and segments of the chromosomes are traded
-a spindle forms from each centrosomes and spindle fibers attached to kinetochores on the chromosomes begin to move the tetrads around |
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Term
|
Definition
-multiple are commonly found (in humans, usually 2)
-numbers of chiasmata vary |
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Term
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Definition
-the tetrads are all arranged at the metaphase plate
-microtubules from one pole are attached to the kinetochore of one chromosome of each tetrad, while those from the other pole are attached to the other |
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Term
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Definition
| -the homologous chromosomes separate and are pulled towards opposite poles |
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Term
|
Definition
-movement of homologous chromosomes continues until there is a haploid set at each pole
-each chromosome consists of linked sister chromatids
-cytokinesis by the same mechanisms as mitosis usually occurs simultaneously
-in some species, nuclei may form, but there is no further chromosome replication |
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Term
|
Definition
-a spindle apparatus forms, attaches to kinetochores of each sister chromatid, and moves the, around
-spindle fibres from one pole attach to the kinetochores of one sister chromatid and those of the other pole to the other sister chromatid |
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Term
|
Definition
-sister chromatids are arranged at the metaphase plate
-the kinetochores of sister chromatids face opposite poles |
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Term
|
Definition
| -the centromeres of sister chromatids separate sisters, travel toard opposte poles |
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Term
|
Definition
-separated sister chromatids arrive at opposite poles
-nuclei form around the chromatids
-cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm
-at the end og meiosis there are 4 hapold daughter cells |
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Term
| Mitosis and Meiosis Differences... |
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Definition
-the chromosome number is reduced by half in meiosis, remains the same in mitosis
-mitosis produces daughter cells genetically identical to the parent and to eachother
-meiosis produces cells that differ from the parent and eachother |
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Term
| Three events unique to meiosis occur... |
|
Definition
1. homologous chromosomes pair up in synapsis during prophase 1
-a protein zipper, the synaptonemal complex holds homologous chromosomes together tightly
-later in prophase 1, the joined homologous chromosomes are a tetrad
-at x-shaped regions called chiasmata, sections of non sister chromatid are exchanged
-chiasmata is the physical manifestation of crossing over, a form of genetic rearrangement
2. At metaphase 1, homologous paurs of chromosomes, not individual chromosomes, are aligned along the metaphase plate
3. At anaphase 1, it is homologous chromosomes, not sister chromatids, that separate and are carried to opposite poles of the cell |
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Term
| Genetic Variation from Sex Life Cycles |
|
Definition
-the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization is responsible for most of the variation that arises each generation during sexual reproduction
-three mechanisms: independent assortment, crossing over, random fertilization |
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Term
|
Definition
-random orientation of tetrads at the metaphase plate contributes to genetic variability
-50/50 chance that a particular daughter cell of meiosis 1 will get the maternal chromosome of a certain homologous pair and 50/50 for the paternal chromosome
-they can line up in different ways
-number of possibilities is 2^n
-alone, would result in receiving either maternal or paternal DNA |
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Term
|
Definition
-produces recombinant chromosomes which combine genes inherited from both parents
-one sister chromatid may undergo different patterns of crossing over than its match
-the independent assortment of these non identical sister chromatids increases genetic variation even more |
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Term
|
Definition
-random nature of fertilization adds again to variability
-any sperm can fuse with any egg
-an ovum is one of approximately 8 million possible chromosome combinations
-successful sperm represents 1 in 8 million
-resulting zygote is 1 in 70 trillion possible combinations of chromosomes |
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Term
| Historical Perspective on Heredity |
|
Definition
-greek philosophers though male flowers caused female flowers to open and that seeds produced by various parts of the body transmitted to offspring at the time of conception
-1700's Anton van Leeuwenhoek saw "animalcules" in sperm
-some scientists said they saw a little man in sperm
-pangenesis- males and females formed pangenes in every organ which moved through the blood to the genitals, were then passed to children
-Francis Galton (Darwins cousin) disproved the theory in the 1870's by showing traits did not change in rabbits after blood transfusions |
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Term
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Definition
-grew up on a farm in current Czech Republic (Austria)
-entered monastery, also went to university of Vienna and became a teacher
- was interested in breeding plants at the monestary
-used peas for experiments, had 7 easily observable traits |
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Term
|
Definition
-round or wrinkled seeds
-yellow or green seed interior
-purple or white flower pedals
-inflated or pinched pods
-yellow or green unripe pods
-axial or terminal flowers
-long or short stems |
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Term
|
Definition
-cross pollinate two contrasting, true breeding varieties of peas
-this is the P generation, hybrid offspring are F1
-would then allow the F1 to self pollinate, producing the F2 generation
-analysis of the F2 plants revealed the two fundamental principles of heredity
-the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -a variant of a character |
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Term
|
Definition
| -organisms which when they breed produce the same characters |
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Term
|
Definition
| -mating or crossing of two varieties |
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Term
|
Definition
| -cross that tracks the inheritance of a single character |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -first finial- generation following the parental |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -alternate versions of a gene |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -allele showing no noticeable effect |
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Term
|
Definition
1. Use true breeding plants- one dominant, one recessive
2. Study a single trait: Crossing yellow and green, first finial was all yellow, second finial was more yellow than green
3. Create a mode: Parents have 2 copies of each gene, alleles segregate into gametes, one copy of each gene, F1, dominant trait masks the recessive, F1 plant can produce 4 different genotypes (YY, Yy, yY, yy), therefore phenotype distribution is 3:1
4. Compare the model with observations: was very close! |
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Term
|
Definition
-adult trauts involve 2 alleles
-alleles segregate into gametes- no blending of traits
-each gamete contains one allele- law of segregation
-dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles in heterozygotes
-true breeding adults have identical alleles- homozygous |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| -having two identical alleles |
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Term
|
Definition
| -having two different alleles |
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Term
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Definition
| -an organisms expressed visible traits |
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Term
|
Definition
| -an organisms genetic makeup |
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Term
|
Definition
- for flower colour in peas, PP and Pp have the same purple phenotype, different genotype
-white flower only produced by pp
-a test cross can be used to see if a dominant phenotype is homo or heterozygous |
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Term
| law of independent assortment |
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Definition
-each pair of alleles segregates into gametes independently
-dihybrid cross of two true breeding plants fit his hypothesis that the allele for one trait has no impact on the allele of another
-YR, Yr, yR and yr were produced in equal amounts
-produced 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio
-showed that each characteristic is inherited independently |
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Term
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Definition
-from monohybrid cross work
-the two chromosomes of a homologous pair separate during metaphase 1 |
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Term
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Definition
-Probability of A in Aa=1/2, in AA=1
-probability of equal likely outcomes is 1/number of possible outcomes
-eg. a coin toss: P(H)=P(T)=1/2 |
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Term
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Definition
-the probability of gamete genotype AB in AaBb -> P(AB)=1/4 (1/2 x 1/2)
-eg. two coin toss has two possible outcomes, 1/2 tails x 1/2 tails = 1/4 double tails |
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Term
| Rule of Multiplication- Independent Events |
|
Definition
-P(A and B)=P(A)P(B)
-six sided die is rolled twice, roles are independednt, A=rolling 1, B= rolling 1 again
-P(rolling 1 on both roles)=P(A and B)=P(A)P(B)=1/6*1*6=1/36
-Dihybrid corss- parent YyRr, probability of Y and R alleles is 1/4
-F2- YYRR is 1/16- dont need punnet square! |
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Term
|
Definition
-probability of alternative outcomes is P1+P2
-two coin toss, probability they are the same = 1/4 double tails + 1/4 double heads = 1/2
-probability of genotype Ab or aB is AaBa -> P(Ab)=1/4 AaBb -> P(aB)=1/4 P(Ab or aB)=1/2
-If A and B are mutually exclusive, P(A or B)=P(A)+P(B) |
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Term
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Definition
-a cross between organisms with two different phenotypes produces an offspring with a third phenotype that is a blend of the paternal traits
-seen when F1 hybrids have an appearance between the two parents
-red x white -> Pink (F1)
-results from the heterozygous having less pigment than the homozygous |
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Term
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Definition
-both alleles are seperately manifest in the phenotype
-example M, N, MN blood groups
-single gene locus with two allelic variations are possible
-MN is not intermediate, is a separate group
-heterozygous cross: 1:2:1 |
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Term
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Definition
-most genes exist in more than 2 allelic forms
-ABO blood types- 4 possible phenotypes
- multiple alleles within a population, still only 2 per person
-e.g. IAIA- A IAi- A IBIB- B IBi- B IAIB- AB ii-O |
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Term
|
Definition
-most genes have multiple phenotypic effects
-ability of a gene to affect an organism in many ways
-two effects from one allele
-e.g. cats- first effect is a cat with all white fur, is also deaf because melanocytes are not produced, not on cochlea |
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Term
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Definition
-one gene masks the expression of another gene for a different trait
-dominance, one allele masks the expression of another allele of the same gene
-a gene at one locus alters the expression of a gene at a second locus
-eg. coat colour, B=black, b=brown, If there is dominant C, albino |
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Term
|
Definition
-cystic fibrosis- lack of membrane transport protein for Cl- ions
-tay-sachs- lack of enzyme that metabolizes certain lipids
-sickle cell- substitution of a singe AA
-PKU- lack the enzyme to metabolize phenylalanine |
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Term
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Definition
| -Huntingtons Disease- acts in late years |
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Term
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Definition
| -show the "family tree", can track the passage of disorders or traits |
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Term
| Found the same results as Mendel |
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Definition
| -karl correns, erich von tsechermak, hugo de vires |
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Term
| parallels between behavior of chromosomes and Mendel's factors |
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Definition
-chromsomes and genes are both present in pairs in diploid cells
-homologous chromosomes separate and alleles segregate during meiosis
-fertilization restores the paired condition for both chromosomes and genes |
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Term
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Definition
-associated specific gene with a specific chromosomes
-chose to study Drosophila melanogaster, fruit fly |
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Term
|
Definition
-females lay hundreds of eggs
-polytene chromosomes in salivary glands are easy to study
-we can assign genes to chromosomes and use protein bands as landmarks |
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Term
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Definition
-normal type is the wild type (superscript +)
- alternatice traits are mutant phenotypes
-when corssing a white eyed male with a red eyed female, F1 had red eyes- therefore red is dominant
-expected phenotypic ration 3:1
-however, all females and half of males had red eyes
-this means it is sex linked
-white female x red male, 1:1 ratio in females and males |
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Term
|
Definition
-linked genes are inherited together because of how close they are on the same chromosome
-results of crosses with linked genes do not follow independent assortment
-Morgan observed by watching body colour and wing size |
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Term
| Morgans Linkage Experiment |
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Definition
-Morgan observed by watching body colour and wing size
-body colour- wild=black, mutant=grey
-wing size- wild-normal, mutant=vestigial
-should be 1:1:1:1 ratio
-there was a large number of wild type and double mutant flies- these phenotypes matched those of the parents |
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Term
| Independent assortment and crossing over |
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Definition
-a 50% frequency of recombination is observed for any two linked genes on different chromosomes
- this is from the random orientation of homologous chromosomes at metaphase 1
-linked genes tend to move together, we would not expect them to recombine
-however, most of offspring had parental phenotype suggesting linkage, but 1-& of flies were recombinant |
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Term
|
Definition
-a chromosome map can be constructed- ordered list of genetic loci on a chromosome
-further apart the genes are, the more probability of a cross over and a higher recombination frequency
-by finding percent recombination frequencies, genes can be ordered
-distances between genes = map units, or centimorgans, 1%
-percentages will not exactly add up, this is a result of multiple crossing over events
-when genes are very far apart ehy virtually always cross over, 50% (maximum)
-more recent techniques allow us to find absolute distances |
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Term
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Definition
-females have 2 x chromosomes while males have one x and one y
-other animals have different systems
-x and y behave as homologous chromosomes, though they are only partially homologous when paired
-each gamete receives one half of the pair
-this is why there is 50/50 chance of babies being male and female
- an individual with an SRY gene (sex determining region of y chromosome) will develop their generic embryonic gonads into testes, opposite for women |
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Term
|
Definition
-sex chromosomes have genes for characters unrelated to sex
-if a sex linked trait is due to a recessive allele, a female only has it if she is homozygous, heterozygous = carrier
-any male receiving the trait will display it as he only has one x chromosome
-this is why males are more likely to have these traits
-eg, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, hemophilia |
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Term
|
Definition
- since females have 2 x chromosomes, noth are not needed, they only need one copy, like males
-one x chromosomes condenses and inactivated, becoming a barr body
- it is reactivated in ovarian cells that produe ova
-which x chromosome condenses is random
-there is a moaic, some cells with each chromosome
-if heterozygous, about half will express each allele
-an exaple is women with some patches of skin without sweat glands
-another is orange and black patterns on some cats
-happens through attachment of a methyl group |
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Term
|
Definition
-alternation in number of chromosomes
-some gametes receive 2 copies of a chromosome, other get none
-eg. trisony 21 results in down syndmore |
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Term
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Definition
-the wrong number of chromosomes
-can occur from failures in mitotic spindle
-can have a substantial effect |
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Term
|
Definition
-organisms with more than two complete sets of chromosomes
-may happen whan a normal gamete fertilizes another gamete with nondisjunction of all its chromosomes
-relatively common among plants
-nearly normal phenotype |
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Term
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Definition
-chromosome fragment lacking a centromere is lost during cell division
- chromosomes will be missing certain genes |
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Term
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Definition
| -fragment becomes attached as an extra segment to a sister chromatid |
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Term
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Definition
-chromosomal fragment joins a non homologous chromosome
-some are reciprocal |
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Term
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Definition
| -chromosomal fragment reattaches to the original chromosome in reverse orientation |
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Term
|
Definition
-deletions and duplication are common in meiosis
-large deletions can be lethal |
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Term
|
Definition
-turner syndrome
-sterile females, short and underdeveloped |
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Term
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Definition
-Klinefelter syndrome
-underdeveloped, sterile males with some female characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
| -slightly taller, apparently normal males |
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Term
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Definition
| -apparently normal females with slight mental retardation |
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Term
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Definition
-specific deletion in chromosome 5
-mentally retarded, small head with unusual facial features, sound like cat
-fatal in infancy or early childhood |
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Term
|
Definition
-humans inherit two sets of chromosomes
0no naturally occuring cases of parthenogenesis due to imprinting
0imprinted genes occur in regions of chromosomes with allele-specific differences in transcription and methylation
-Prader-Willi syndrome- deletion of part of chromosome 15 from father
-angelman syndrome- deletion of part of chromosome 15 from mother |
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Term
|
Definition
-found in DNA of mitochondria and chloroplasts
-organelles reproduce themselves
-so not display mendelian inheritance
-only passed down from maternal parent
-mutations may impact ATP supply, tissues that require high energy supplies or contribute to diabetes heart disease or other diseases of aging |
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Term
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Definition
-an explanation of a set of natural phenomena, based upon proven or testable hypotheses and observations
-the theory of evolution is supported by evidence
-if a theory withstands testing, it is good
-if it does not, we can learn what to adjust |
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Term
| Static classification and characterization |
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Definition
-people thought all organisms were static and unchanging
-Aristotle created the scala natura that ranked all creatures on a ladder based upon complexity |
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Term
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Definition
-had the linnean system
-was a natural theologist
-wanted to name every species with binomial nomenclature
-characterized species by their reproductive structures |
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Term
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Definition
-discovered vestigial traits that seemed useless to the organism
-thought some traits used to be helpful but something changed |
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Term
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Definition
-thought that offspring inherited acquired traits from their parents, this is how species evolved
-did get four things right:
-species change thought time
-changes passed from one generation to the next
-organisms change in response to their environment
-their are specific mechanisms that caused evolutionary change |
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Term
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Definition
| -thought that species were fixed and there are points where they go extinct as a result of catastrophic events |
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Term
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Definition
| -believed that since geological processes happened slowly, this is how the earth slowly changes (uniformitarianism) |
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Term
|
Definition
-thought evolution was by natural selection
-species change gradually through time due to interactions between individuals traits and their environments |
|
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Term
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Definition
| -difference in appearance and function that are passed from generation to generation |
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Term
|
Definition
-individuals differ in small, incremental ways
-data is usually on a bar graph or curve
-the mean describes the average value of the character
-a broad low curve shows a lot of variation while a high narrow one shows little variation |
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Term
|
Definition
| -they exist in two or more discrete states and intermediate forms are often absent |
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Term
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Definition
| -the existence of discrete variants of a character |
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Term
| phenotypic genetic variation causes |
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Definition
-only genetic based variation is subject to evolutionary change
-they can have genetic or environmental causes
-you can test for environmental causes by changing an environmental variable and monitoring change eg. growing a plant in shade
-breeding experiments show genetic basis for phenotypic variation eg. mendels peas
-breeding experiments are not always practical, then pedigrees are used |
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Term
| several processes generate genetic variation |
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Definition
-the production of new alleles
-the rearrangement of existing alleles: causes larger scale changes in chromosome structure, crossing over, etc. |
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Term
|
Definition
| -the sum of all alleles at all gene loci in all individuals |
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Term
|
Definition
| -the percentage of individuals possessing each genotype |
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Term
|
Definition
-the relative abundance of the different alleles
-alleles are represented as p and q when there are two |
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Term
|
Definition
-specifies the conditions under which a population of diploid organisms achieve genetic equilibrium
-the following conditions must be met:
1. no mutations occurring
2. population is closed to migrations
3. population is infinite in size
4. all genotypes survive and reproduce equally well
5. individuals mate randomly with respect to genotype |
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Term
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Definition
| -the point at which neither allele frequencies or genotype frequencies change in succeeding generations |
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Term
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Definition
| -predicts what would be seen if a factor had no effects |
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Term
|
Definition
-in a heterozygous cross... (p+q)(p+q)=p^2+2pq+q^2
-frequency of dominant homozygous =p^2
-frequency of heterozygous =2pq
-frequency of recessive homozygous =q^2
-all added together =1 |
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Term
|
Definition
| -the transfer of genes from one population to another through the movement of individuals or their gametes |
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Term
|
Definition
-random fluctuations in allele frequencies as a result of chance events
-usually reduces genetic variation in a population |
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Term
|
Definition
-a stressful factor kills many individuals and eliminates some alleles from a population
-reduces genetic variation |
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Term
|
Definition
-when a few individuals start a new, separate population
-may change allele frequency or eliminate some alleles |
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Term
|
Definition
-beneficial, heritable traits become more common in subsequent generations
-violates HW equilibrium
-it is the phenotype, rather than allele, that is successful or not |
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Term
|
Definition
-(w)
-fitness relative to others in a population
-calculated by the fitness being looked at over the best one
-best genotype has w=1 |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
-individuals near one end of the spectrum have the highest relative fitness
-shifts a trait away from the existing mean and towards a favoured extreme |
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Term
|
Definition
-individuals expressing intermediate phenotypes have the highest relative fitness
-reduces genetic and phenotypic variations and increases thee frequency of intermediate phenotypes |
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Term
|
Definition
-extreme phenotypes have higher relative fitness than intermediate types
-promotes polymorphism |
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Term
|
Definition
| -differential reproductive success due to variation among individuals in success at getting mates |
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Term
|
Definition
| -sexual reproduction increases the likelihood that some offspring will be successful |
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Term
|
Definition
-males compete
-monopolize access to females, direct control of females
-fighting
-sperm competition
-infanticide |
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Term
|
Definition
-females choose, males attract their attention
-elaborate courtship displays
-ornamentation
-good gene hypothesis
-acquisition of resources (gifts)
-sexy sons |
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Term
| Why are females choosier? |
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Definition
-mothers make a larger parental investment
-male fitness only limited by mates
-females are motivated by quality, not quantity |
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Term
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Definition
| -some organisms pick a mate with a specific phenotype |
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Term
|
Definition
-like mates with like
-promotes inbreeding and homozygosity |
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Term
|
Definition
-opposites attract
-greater heterozygosity |
|
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Term
| how are recessive alleles protected |
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Definition
| -heterozygosity allows for negative recessive alleles to be passed down without dying off |
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Term
|
Definition
| -two or more phenotypes are maintained in fairly stable proportions over many generations |
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Term
|
Definition
| -eg. sickle cell anemia and malaria |
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Term
| selection in varying environment |
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Definition
-different alleles are favoured in different places or at different times
-can have to do with camouflage |
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Term
| Frequency dependent selection |
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Definition
-rare phenotypes have higher relative fitness, so variability is maintained
-it will increase in frequency until it loses its advantage |
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Term
|
Definition
| -allele codes may be for different amino acids that result in the same proteins and have no visible effects |
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Term
|
Definition
| -any product of natural selection that increases the relative fitness of an organism in its environment |
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Term
|
Definition
-the accumulation of adaptive traits over time
-can make an adaptive explanation for any characteristic we observe in nature
-some characteristics are a result of chance |
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Term
|
Definition
-offspring resemble their parents
-breeding certain offspring to produce certain characteristics is artificial selection |
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Term
|
Definition
-more offspring are produced than necessary because not all of them will survive and reproduce
-only those with the highest fitness will |
|
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Term
| 4 characteristics distinguish darwin's theory |
|
Definition
1. it is based on the physical rather than spiritual explanations
2. he recognized evolutionary change occurs in groups of organisms rather than individuals, some members survive and reproduce more successfully than others
3. described evolution as a multistage process, variations arise within groups, natural selection eliminates unsuccessful variations, the next generation inherits successful ones
4. Evolution occurs because some organisms function better than others in a particular environment |
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Term
| descent through modification |
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Definition
-the evolutionary alteration and diversification of ancestral species
-proposed natural selection was the mechanism that drives evolutionary change |
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Term
|
Definition
-the origin of higher taxonomic groups
-brings together common ancestry, decent with modification and speciation
-results from the accumulation of microevolutionary changes over time |
|
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Term
| morphological species concept |
|
Definition
-identified by morphological similarities
-based strictly on phenotypic qualities |
|
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Term
| biological species concept |
|
Definition
-groups of potentially or actually interbreeding organisms that are reproductively isolated
-most common species definition |
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Term
|
Definition
-barrier subdivides a population allowing for the accumulation of differences
-long distance dispersal- some start a new population in a new environment
-vicariance- road splits a population in two |
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Term
|
Definition
| -population spreads across a heterogeneous landscape, different selection in adjacent habitats with different environments |
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Term
|
Definition
-divergence within a homogeneous environment
-muatations causing isolation
-disruptive selection coupled with assertive mating |
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Term
| How to tell if species have become separate |
|
Definition
-secondary contact: if they are reproductively isolated
-reinforcement: may favor isolation of hybrid offspring have lower fitness than non-hybrids |
|
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Term
| convergent/parallel evolution, homoplasty |
|
Definition
| -the evolution of similar adaptations in distantly related organisms that live in similar environments |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-shows evolutionary relationships among organisms
-each branch shows a new species
-it shows taxonomic groups |
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Term
|
Definition
| -a common ancestor and all of its decendents |
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Term
|
Definition
| -have a common ancestor and only some of its descendants, or members from diverse lineages |
|
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Term
| related taxa by similarities of traits |
|
Definition
| -most closely related taxa should have most traits in common |
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Term
|
Definition
| -similar traits that are due to descendant from a common ancestry |
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Term
|
Definition
-dissimilarity of traits due to different selection pressures/environment
-differences may make us think taxa are unrelated despite a recent common ancestor |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| -establishes a root, known to be distantly related to the group of interest |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| -the simplest explanation is most likely correct |
|
|
Term
| phylogenetic species concept |
|
Definition
-the smallest group of organisms that share a unique set of character states not shared by any other group
-populations must have been evolutionary independent long enough to create differences
-time consuming and expensive |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-transformation
-accumulation of changes in a lineage as it adapts to changing environments
-if changes are specific they warrant naming a new species
-does not increase number of species over time |
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Term
|
Definition
-branching evolution
-evolution of 2 or more descendant species from a common ancestor
-should increase number of species over time
-evidence bo co-existing or overlapping fossil forms |
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Term
|
Definition
-large differences in species represent the accumulation of many small changes
-should see transitional forms in the fossil record
-lack of transitional forms explained by poor fossil record, only shows 1%! |
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Term
|
Definition
-species diverge in spurts of rapid change, followed by long periods of stasis
-but.. how fast is rapid? is there not still some evolution between? non fossilized changes may occur? |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-reconstruct the phylogeny of evolutionary history
-identification and naming of species and their placement in a classification (taxonomy) |
|
|
Term
| Linnean System of Classification |
|
Definition
-domain
-kingdom
-phylum
-class
-order
-family
-genus
-species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -the organisms included within any category |
|
|
Term
| Molecular data advantages |
|
Definition
-provide abundant data
-can be compared for very distantly related organisms
-can also be used for very closely related species with very few differences
-not affected by factors causing non genetic morphological variations |
|
|
Term
| Molecular data disadvantages |
|
Definition
-with only 4 bases there could be similar sequences by chance
- |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-differences in the DNA of two species cab index their time of divergence
-large differences imply divergence long ago, while smaller ones hint to more recent divergence |
|
|
Term
| Using molecular data for molecular phylogenetics |
|
Definition
-after selecting a protein the sequence of amino acids or nucleotides must be determined
-they can then be analyzed between species for similarities |
|
|
Term
| Aligning molecular sequences |
|
Definition
-they must be alligned to compensate for insertions or deletions
-the sequence can then be used to create a phylogenetic tree comparing species |
|
|
Term
| reproductive isolating mechanisms |
|
Definition
| -a biological characteristic that prevents the gene pools of two species from mixing even when they are sympatric |
|
|
Term
| prezygotic isolating mechanisms |
|
Definition
-isolate before fertilization
-ecological isolation (different habitats)
-temporal isolation (mate at different times of day or year
-behavioral isolation (signals of one species are not recognized by others)
-mechanical isolation (organs dont work together)
-gametic isolation (incompatibility between sperm and egg) |
|
|
Term
| Postzygotic Isolating Mechanisms |
|
Definition
-two species are reproductively isolated if their hybrid offspring has lower fitness than non hybrids
-hybrid inviability (dies as an embryo or at early stage)
-hybrid sterility (the hybrid is sterile and can produce no offspring)
-hybrid breakdown (F1 is fine, F2 shows lower fitness) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -major research questions relate to distribution and abundance of species and how they interact with eachother and the physical environment |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| -develop conservation plans and amelioration programs to limit, repair and mitigate ecological damage caused by human activities |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -researchers study organisms to determine the genetic, biochemical, physiological, morphological and behavioral adaptations to the abiotic environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-researchers focus on groups of individuals of the same species that live together
-study how size and other characteristics of population change in space and time |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-biologists examine populations of different species that occur together in one area
-study interactions between species, analyzing how predation, competition and environmental disturbances influence a communities development, organization and structure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -explore how nutrient cycle and energy flows between biotic components of an ecological community and the abiotic environment |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| -the number of individuals making up the population at a specified time |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-the number of individuals per unit area or volume of habitat
-larger body size usually means lower population density |
|
|
Term
| Measuring population size |
|
Definition
-a head count can be used- it is not always accurate or easy to do
-mark and recapture method:
-(marked)/(total)=(marked recaptured)/(recaptured)
-still cant do for cloned organisms! |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| -the spatial distribution of individuals within the geographic range |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -arranged in little groups due to resources, ability of mates or when asexual clones are attached to their parents |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-evenly distributed
-usually when resources are in short supply
-allelopathy- making it so nobody else can live in your area
-territorial behavior can also lead to a uniform pattern |
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Term
|
Definition
-organisms have no organization
-occurs when environmental conditions do not vary much within a habitat |
|
|
Term
| Humans have avoided the effects of density-dependent regulating factors in three ways... |
|
Definition
-expanded geographic range to basically everywhere
-we have increased K in habitats we occupy isolating us from restrictions associated with access of resources
-advances in public health reduced the effect of population limiting factors such as malnutrition, contagious disease and poor hygiene |
|
|
Term
| rate of population growth |
|
Definition
-human population on the earth is increasing at a rapid rate
-the rate of growth changes according to country or region |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-there are equal numbers of reproductive and prereproductive people
-reproductives are having few offspring |
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Term
| Negative population growth |
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Definition
-postreproductives outnumber reproductives
-will not experience increase when children reach reproductive age |
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Term
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Definition
-many children born in the last 15 years
-worldwide, more than 1/3 of the population
-when they reach sexual maturity, each having a couple kids will result in a huge spike in population
-this is called a population bomb |
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Term
| demographic transition model |
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Definition
| -shows changes in demographic patters in industrialized countries |
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Term
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Definition
-birth and death rates are high
-population is growing slowly |
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Term
| Transitional stage population |
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Definition
-when food production rises and health care and sanitation improve, death rates decline
-increases rate of population growth until living conditions improve and birth rate declines |
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Term
| Industrial stage and population |
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Definition
-population growth slows dramatically
-people are more focused on goods then children |
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Term
| Postindustrial population |
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Definition
-reach zero population growth
-birth rate falls below death rate
-population size begins to decline |
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Term
| controlling human reproduction |
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Definition
-birth rate must be decreased to control population growth
-some governments use family planning programs
-delaying first child lowers average family size and slows population growth |
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Term
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Definition
-the number of children per couple
-should be slightly higher than 2 children per couple to reach ZPG |
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Term
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Definition
| -plants and animals have developed mechanisms to avoid being caught and eaten |
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Term
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Definition
-spines
-thorns
-irritating hairs
-poisonous chemicals |
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Term
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Definition
-being too small to be considered food
-being too big to be attacked and killed |
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Term
| eternal vigilance defense |
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Definition
-not being detected by keeping lookout for predators and the associated dangers
-living in groups helps with this |
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Term
|
Definition
-many camouflage
-look like things that are not food |
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Term
| Evasive action as defense |
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Definition
-running away
-taking refuge in shelter
-being out of reach
-trying to startle or intimidate by looking larger
-then they use whatever weapons they have if necessary |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
-smelling or tasting bad
-being toxic
- |
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Term
|
Definition
-animals that are bright coloured to show that they are not safe to be eaten
-some animals only eat these dangerous prey and they are easy to find |
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Term
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Definition
-an animal will look like a poison one even if it is not
-two dangerous ones may look the same |
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Term
|
Definition
| -used as food chains are often too simple |
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Term
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Definition
-summarize survival and reproduction
-record age specific survivorship and reproduction until all members die
-can calculate morality, survivorship and fecundity |
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Term
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Definition
-type 1: mortality greatest in older age classes, large mammals
-type 2: mortality is equal among age classes (small mammals, annuals)
-type 3: mortality greatest in younger age classes (fish, invertebrates) |
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Term
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Definition
-males to females in a population
-predicted to be 1:1
-larger female to male allows for faster growth |
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Term
| Modelling population growth |
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Definition
∆N=# births (B)-# deaths (D)
-birth rate per individual: b=B/N
-death rate per individual: d=D/N
-per capita growth rate: r=b-d
-dynamic change in N: ∆N/∆t=(b-d)N |
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Term
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Definition
-∆N/∆t=rN
-population increases when r is greater than 0 and vice versa
-intrinsic rate of increase, rmax when conditions are optimal
-no constrain on population size |
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Term
| limits to population growth |
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Definition
-density dependent factors: predation, competition, parasitism
-density independent factors: natural disasters, temperature |
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Term
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Definition
-carrying capacity, K, maximum population size supported by an environment
-∆N/∆t=rN[(K-N)/K]
-population increases when N is less than K and vice versa
-when N is very small it is like exponential growth
-when N is big, there is no growth or a stable population |
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Term
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Definition
-positive/negative interaction
-predator gains food, prey loses life
-set up situation for natural selection to occur
-defense and attack strategies
-camouflage
-aposematic colouration |
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Term
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Definition
| -one species is harmful while the other is non harmful |
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Term
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Definition
-both species are harmful
-both benefit from higher encounter rate and learning by predators |
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Term
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Definition
-positive and negative interaction
-positive for parasite, negative for host
-like predation but is a more complex interaction beyond nutrition, may involve habitat
-parasites are often smaller with shorter life spans |
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Term
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Definition
-negative for both parties, everyone loses something
-occurs when an individual is denied a resource
-food, water, light, territory, space, mates, etc.
-exploitative is a passive use of resources before others can get to them
-interference is directly fighting another organism for access to a resource |
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Term
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Definition
-two paramecium can live successfully on their own, but when put together only one can survive
-both populations thrive for a little then ones dies out
-species with the same niche cannot coexist |
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Term
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Definition
-removing one species and seeing of the other expands its range
-fundamental niche is the habitat used in the absence of predators
-realized niches is the restricted habitat because of the presence of competitors |
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Term
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Definition
-positive for both species
-one organism taking something from the other and the other way
-not a mutual decision, just happens
-ex. plant pollinator |
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Term
| Interspecific Competition |
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Definition
-competition between species for the same limiting resource
-can reduce the size and growth rate of one or more competing species |
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Term
|
Definition
-individuals of one species directly harm individuals of another species
-fighting, toxic chemicals, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
| -two or more populations use the same limiting resource and the presence of one species reduces the availability for others |
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