Term
| What are the three main requirements for respiration? |
|
Definition
DIFFUSION of gases
MOIST membranes
Gases must be in SOLUTION |
|
|
Term
| Gases diffuse through moist membranes _____ their concentration gradients |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or False: Diffusion relies upon a gradience |
|
Definition
| True; the gradient allows for particles to move from on place to another. |
|
|
Term
| What is the relationship between the rate of diffusion and the density of the medium. |
|
Definition
| The rate is inversely related to the density of the medium |
|
|
Term
| What is the definition of diffusion? |
|
Definition
| Molecules move from an area of ____ concentration to one of ___ concentration |
|
|
Term
| True or False: Diffusion works well over long distances. |
|
Definition
| False; diffusion works well over short distances. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Calculate the diffusion of a gas. |
|
|
Term
| What is the equation for Fick's Law? |
|
Definition
| Diffusion coefficent x gradient x area/thickness |
|
|
Term
| How are aquatic creatures structured to maxmize diffusion? |
|
Definition
| Since most are thin and long, they have a minimized thickness and maxmized area of exchange. |
|
|
Term
| What two problems do animals face with diffusion? |
|
Definition
| They need to increase their surface area since they grow and their volume grows. They also need better ways to get rid of CO2 and take in O2 since metabolic processes increase with movement. |
|
|
Term
| Name four ways Large animals with high metabolic rates adapt to maximize respiratory gas diffusion rates. Off the two, which are bulk flow systems? |
|
Definition
-increasing surface areas for gas exchange
- maximizing partial pressure gradients across surfaces
by decreasing their thickness
- ventilating the outer surface with respiratory medium
- perfusing the inner surface with blood |
|
|
Term
| True or False: 2 dimensional organisms require little or no equipment for respiration because diffusion is adequate |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or false:3 dimensional organisms or larger organisms do not need to supplement diffusion |
|
Definition
| False; they are large, so its hard for gases to simply diffuse from head to toes. |
|
|
Term
| What are bulk flow systems? |
|
Definition
| brings the highest concentraiton and the lowest into contact to maximize diffusion and ensure gradient. |
|
|
Term
| What effect does dessication have on diffusion |
|
Definition
| Dessicaation prevents diffusion since diffusion needs a moist membrane. |
|
|
Term
| How does a plant fend off against dessication? |
|
Definition
| waxy cuticle on plants (except at stomates and lenticels) |
|
|
Term
| How do animals fend off against dessication? |
|
Definition
| invagination of membranes (lungs inside chest, tracheal systems of insects) |
|
|
Term
| Name two parts of a plant that are responsible for gas exchange? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are chanocytes? Where are they found? |
|
Definition
| Found on sponge.Choanocytes create water current movements with their flagella |
|
|
Term
| What are antistanation devices? |
|
Definition
| They are simply bulk flow systems.Help regulated the water/air in the gills/lungs. |
|
|
Term
| What two factors limit gas exchange in aquatic animals? |
|
Definition
low diffusion rate
low O2 level in water |
|
|
Term
| What two problems do aquatic animals face due to their environment? |
|
Definition
1. Oxygen concentration in water diminishes as water temperature rises
2. Their metabolism and the work required to move water over gas exchange surfaces increase, too |
|
|
Term
| True or false; water has very little oxygen compared to air. |
|
Definition
| True; its even less in warm salt water. |
|
|
Term
| As temperature ______, O2 concentration in water decreaes. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or false: The demand for oxygen does not increase if an organism is moving around. |
|
Definition
| False; demand increases since it is moving around and being active. |
|
|
Term
| Explain how the physical adaption of gills work. Which organism has then? |
|
Definition
| Aquatic arthpods. They are actually gas-filled extensions of the tracheal system. The thin gill membranes allow gas exchange with water. |
|
|
Term
| Explain behavioral adaptions where O2 may not be present in aquatic environments? |
|
Definition
| Many insects and invertebrates carry gas bubbles with them during dives. |
|
|
Term
| What are two ways to work around the problem of less available O2? |
|
Definition
| Having an efficient transport system and having respiratory pigments to increase oxygen transport. |
|
|
Term
| True or false: Water is too viscous (compared to air) to draw inside the body for gas exchange |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Gills bring a large fraction of the blood or hemolymph near enough to water to allow for gas exchange through a countercurrent exchange system. |
|
|
Term
| How do land organisms prevent dessication? |
|
Definition
| To minimize water loss, the respiratory surface has been inverted and internalized. |
|
|
Term
| How do amphibians respirate? |
|
Definition
| Use their alveolar lungs through positive pressure. |
|
|
Term
| What is positive pressure? |
|
Definition
| Raising the air pressure above that of the lung is positive pressure breathing.To do this, the animal closes his mouth and forces the air down the mouth due to pressure. |
|
|
Term
| How do mammmals and reptiles respirate? |
|
Definition
| They use alveolar lungs through negative pressure. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| They use parabronchial lungs and use negative pressure and compression. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the trachael system of the grasshopper? |
|
Definition
Invaginations of body wall lead directly to each cell. The tracheas branch out to each cell.
Respiratory surface area is closely matched to body size. |
|
|
Term
| How does a negative pressure system work? |
|
Definition
- suck air into their lungs to breathe in
- squeeze air out of the lungs to breathe out |
|
|
Term
| How does the diaphragm aid in breathing? |
|
Definition
| When it contracts, it pills the lungs down, allowing for negative pressure to pull air in. |
|
|
Term
| What type of muscle is the diaphragm? What is the definition of this muscle? |
|
Definition
| Diagrpharm is a straited muscle--it doesn’t contract unless a nervous system makes it contract. |
|
|
Term
| What are the external intercostal muscles? |
|
Definition
| They help raise the chest |
|
|
Term
| What does the internal intercostal muscle? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or False; external intercostal muscles don't work when you relax the chest. |
|
Definition
| False; the internal intercostal muscles don't work. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the process of inhalation. Is it active or passive? |
|
Definition
| At rest, Inhalation is active. It results from contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles, which creates a negative pressure in the thoracic cavity, sucking air into the lungs |
|
|
Term
| Explain the process of exhalation. Is it active or passive? |
|
Definition
| At rest, Exhalation is passive. It results from the relaxation of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles, and the settling of the chest onto the abdominal organs. This forces air out of the lungs |
|
|
Term
| During inhalation, the diaphragm ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| During exhalation, the diaphragm ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or false; the negative pressure created inside the lungs only occurs if the lungs stick to the chest. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What increases the surface area of the lungs in humans? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What holds the lungs together? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens to the alveolar pressure during inhalation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens to the alveolar pressure during exhalation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens to the pleural cavity pressure (space between chest and lungs) during inhalation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens to the pleural cavity pressure (space between chest and lungs) during exhalation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Explain how the pleura are held together? |
|
Definition
| Leaflates are stuck together by surface tension by water molecule and negative pressure. |
|
|
Term
| What two things do pleura have due to moisture? |
|
Definition
| Negative pressure and surface tension |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Surfactant permits the leaflets to slide against each other, lowering surface tenssion |
|
|
Term
| Why do we need surfactant? |
|
Definition
| The leaflets aren't dry, so they can't easily slide against each other. The membranes are moist, which means the leaflets stick. |
|
|
Term
| The rib cage has a tendency to move___ and the lung has tendency to collapase_____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What two things does surfactant do besides lower surface tension? |
|
Definition
| Lowers the work of the lung and keeps aveloi open. |
|
|
Term
| What three things can surface tension and negative pressure hold together? |
|
Definition
| Lung, chest, and pleural leaflets |
|
|
Term
| The_______ of the chest wall pulls the lungs outward during inhalation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The_______ pulls the stretched lung-chest inward at the end of inhalation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or False; we have no way of calculating the amount of air, we can onlu count the differeence |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Birds contain ____ and Bird's air flows in ____ ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does a bird accompish gas exchange? |
|
Definition
| The parabronchus lung has channels that come into contact with capparriliaries, increasing surface area of exchange. |
|
|
Term
| Alveloar-cappillary membrane is thin/thick |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Pulmonary venules are what color? Why? |
|
Definition
| They are red since they contain oxyignated blood. |
|
|
Term
| Pulmonary arteries are what color? Why? |
|
Definition
| They are blue since they contain deoxyingated blood. |
|
|
Term
| Difference between artery and vein? What color are each? |
|
Definition
| Arteries (red) go away from the heart while veins (blue) go towards heart. |
|
|
Term
| What are Type 1 cells in the avelous? |
|
Definition
| They form the lining of the avelous and air must pass through them to get to the cappaliaries. |
|
|
Term
| What are Type 2 cells in the avelous? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are aveolar macrohpages? |
|
Definition
| They help eat bacteria and clean up avelous? |
|
|
Term
| True or false; the bronchi are not lined with cilli |
|
Definition
| False; cilli is present to push mucus out of our lungs and into or mouth to spit. |
|
|
Term
| Passage ways between the avelous are known as what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Explain the avleolar-cappilary model. How is a partial pressure gradient made? What are the two bulk flow systems? |
|
Definition
| We have two bulk flow systems that bring the liquid and gases together at the exhchange membrane, which are the cardiovascular apparatus and ventilatory apparatus. The cardiovascular system pumps blood into the alveolar-capillary membrane. High oxygen levels in the air can diffuse into the low levels in the blood, so there is a partial pressure gradient. |
|
|
Term
| What are the partial pressures of CO2 and O2? Which one has a higher gradient? |
|
Definition
| 160 mmHg O2 and 0.3 mmHg CO2. O2 has a higher gradient. |
|
|
Term
| Explain how O2 moves down its partial pressure gradient? |
|
Definition
| O2 in air or water steps down its gradient across the alveolar capillary membrane to the blood, from capillaries to interstitial fluid, and from interstitial fluid across cell membranes |
|
|
Term
| Explain how CO2 moves down its partial pressure gradient? |
|
Definition
| CO2 steps down its gradient across cell membranes into the interstitial fluid, from there, across the capillary membrane into the blood, and from the blood across the alveolar-capillary membrane into alveolar air |
|
|
Term
| Why is CO2's gradient less sharper than O2's? |
|
Definition
| CO2 is 20 times more soluble than O2 which means Co2 does need as much of a push to get out of the solution. |
|
|
Term
| Solubility decreases with ________ temperature and with _______ salt content |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What acid does CO2 form when put into a solution? What are byproducts of this acid when it dissociates? |
|
Definition
| Carobonic acid H2CO3 and the byproducts are H+ and HCO3- |
|
|
Term
| What is partial pressure of O2 in artierlized and venus blood? |
|
Definition
| PO2 Arterialized blood =97 mmHg and PCO2 Venus blood = 40 mmHg |
|
|
Term
| What is the dissovled and bound concentration in arterilized blood? What are the %'s? |
|
Definition
| Dissolved = 0.29 ml/100 ml of blood and bound = 19.21ml/100ml blood. Dissolved 1.5% and bound 98.5% |
|
|
Term
| What are two things repiratory pigments can do? |
|
Definition
| Increase solublity of O2 (increasing its transporation ability) and act as buffer for Co2. |
|
|
Term
| What are the three major respiratory pigments? |
|
Definition
| Hemoglobin, myglobin, and hemocyacin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A 4-protein complex that contains ferrous iron bound to heme. It is red to maroon, depending on oxygen saturation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Related to hemoglobin, but is used specifically to store oxygen in muscle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A protein complex with copper. It is blue when oxygenated, and colorless when un-oxygenated |
|
|
Term
| What is an alosteric molecule? What molecule have we talked about is an alosteric molecule? |
|
Definition
| A molecule that changes shape when something binds to it. A molecule we know of is hemoglobin. |
|
|
Term
| How are sickle cells caused? |
|
Definition
| Genetic mutation of the hemoglobin |
|
|
Term
| Why do sickle cells become so sticky? |
|
Definition
| Deoxygenated hemoglobin-S polymerizes into hemoglobin strands that deform the cell. The cells become sticky |
|
|
Term
| What are two problems that sickle cells can cause? |
|
Definition
| blocking blood flow and early breaking apart (rupture of sickled cells) leads to anemia |
|
|
Term
| True or false; Hemoglobin in oxidized by oxygen. |
|
Definition
| False; it is oxygenatated, not oxidized. |
|
|
Term
| How do respiratory pigments work? |
|
Definition
| They use Fick's Law and work by increasing the effective concentration gradient. They generally have a high affinity to oxygen. |
|
|
Term
| What is cooperativity in hemoglobin? |
|
Definition
| Once one oxygen binds to hemoglobin, the other three can easily bind onto it. |
|
|
Term
| O2 binds readily in lungs at ____ PO2, but dissociates in tissues at ___ PO2 . |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Acidity causes hemoglobin to unload oxygen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When oxygen binds to hemoglobin? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When oxygen comes off hemoglobin. |
|
|
Term
| How much oxygen is lost when hemoglobin moves from the lungs to tissues? |
|
Definition
| 25%, so 75% is still remaining. |
|
|
Term
| What increases to add oxygen to hemoglobin? What decreases to unload oxygen from hemoglobin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Partial pressure is ____ in the lungs and ____ in the tissues. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Expresses O2 binding affinity. |
|
|
Term
| What does a lower p50 Mean? (left shift) |
|
Definition
| Higher affinity and better loading of oxygen due to lowered partial pressure. |
|
|
Term
| What does a higher p50 mean? (right shift) |
|
Definition
| Lower affinity and decreased loading of oxygen due to increased partial pressure. |
|
|
Term
| What are three ways the Oxygen Dissociation Curve affinity can change? |
|
Definition
Chain substitution
Amino Acid Substitution
Microenvironment around hemoglobin |
|
|
Term
| What is Chain Substitution? |
|
Definition
| Beta chains are substitued |
|
|
Term
| What is Amino Acid Substitution? |
|
Definition
| Changes in amino acid sequence to change shape of molecule. |
|
|
Term
| What is the microenvironment around the hemoglobin? |
|
Definition
| Acidity, which may make a hemoglobin unload oxygen. |
|
|
Term
| What two factors can change an affinity curve? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why does a right shift favor unloading of O2? |
|
Definition
| Bohr's effect; the acidity decreases the the hemoglobin unwinds and releases oxygen. |
|
|
Term
| What are the two forms of hemoglobin? Which is oxygen rich and which is oxygen poor? Which one is accidic? |
|
Definition
Oxyhemoglobin Oxygen rich KHbO2
Deoxyhemoglobin Oxygen poor HHbCO2 (acidic) |
|
|
Term
| How is CO2 distributed in the blood? |
|
Definition
7% is simply dissolved gas
23% is bound to amine groups on Hb, forming carbamino complexes (= carbaminohemoglobin)
70% of CO2 is carried in a buffered form, as sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), so it is bound |
|
|
Term
| What are the two forms of the bound CO2? |
|
Definition
| (1) the amino group in the hemoglobin, and (2) bicarbonate. |
|
|
Term
| What does the amine group in hemoglobin pick up? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does the carboxyl group in hemoglobin pick up? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does the iron in the blood pick up? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why does hemoglobin act as a buffer? |
|
Definition
| It can pick up hydrogen (H+) ions. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the entire process in how CO2 leaves the tissues, comes into the red blood cell, and moves out into the lungs. |
|
Definition
| When the red blood cell comes to the tissue, Co2 is produced at the tissue level, diffuses across cell membrane into intersitital fluid and acrooss the capaliray wall into the plasma and then enters the red cell. The red cell has carobnic anyhydrase. CO2 hydrates to form carobnic acid which dissociates into H+ ions and bicarbonate. The H ions combine with the carboxly of the hemoglobin, and CO2 combines with amino group. Bicaronate is exported out into the plasma. To maintain electrical charge, Cl moves into the red cell. When the red blood cell comes to the lung, bicarbonate comes in and CL leaves. H+ and bicaronate combine to form carobnic acid. Enzyme changes the cabonic acid to CO2 and it moves into the lungs out of the body. |
|
|
Term
| Where is the rhythm center for breathing located? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where are the modulating center for breathing located? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which nerve is used in active ventilation and not in quiet breathing? |
|
Definition
| Internal intercostal muscles. |
|
|
Term
| Which experiences more AP bursts, active ventiliation or quiet breathing? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The phrenic nerve goes to the ____ during breathing. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or false; at rest, exhalation is passive. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The external intercostal nerves go to the_____ during breathing. |
|
Definition
| ribcage inspiratory muscles |
|
|
Term
| The internal intercostal nerves go to the ______ during breathing. |
|
Definition
| ribcage expiratory muscles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| They detect the bloods CO2 and Hydrogen content. |
|
|
Term
| What are the central chemoreceptors? What are the the peripheral chemoreceptors? |
|
Definition
| Pons and medulla; aoritc and carotid body. |
|
|
Term
| Where are chemoreceptors and baroreceptors found? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Detect distortions of the blood vessels and their walls (measure BP). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Detect chemical nature of the blood. |
|
|
Term
| Explain how the central chemoreceptors work in the medulla? |
|
Definition
| The vascular of the brain has a blood brain barrier. Barrier does not let H cross, but lets CO2. THE CO2 moves into the cerobrospinal fluid. In this fluid, the enzyme carbonic anhydrase hydrates CO2 into carbonic acid, which dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen, ad H+ stimulates the chemorreceptors. |
|
|
Term
| What are the main detecting differences between the cental and peripheral chemoreceptors? |
|
Definition
| Central detects H made from CO2, and peripheral detects H from non-CO2 sources like metabolism. |
|
|
Term
| At what partial pressure is ventiliation stimulated? |
|
Definition
| When it falls at or below 60 mmHg, which makes receptors responsive. |
|
|
Term
| What two molecules stimulate ventilation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why is bulk flow used in large and thick organisms? |
|
Definition
| Helps bypass thickness to allow diffusion to work more efficiently. |
|
|
Term
| An increase in size must be accompanied by a ____ ____ fluid distribution system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Fluid movement requires ___ ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In order for their to be a sharp gradient for exchange, there needs to be ? |
|
Definition
| Two bulk flow systems. They work against each other from high to low. |
|
|
Term
| In order for their to be a shallow gradient for exchange, there needs to be ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In sponges, these collar cells create water current movements with their flagella. |
|
|
Term
| How do sponges empty their cavities? |
|
Definition
| Channocytes move water into openings known as ostia. The muscles in the sponge contract and the cavity is emptied? |
|
|
Term
| How do Cnidaria empty their cavities? |
|
Definition
| It’s food is brought into the opening by the tentacles. It moves them into the mouth and then into the exit. After entering the body, the animal contracts and expels the food. There is only ONE opening…the mouth in which food came in. |
|
|
Term
| How do flatworms empty their cavities? |
|
Definition
| It’s food is brought into the pharnyx. It moves them into the mouth and then into the exit. After entering the body, the animal contracts and expels the food. There is only ONE opening…the mouth in which food came in. |
|
|
Term
| How do jellyfish move water into their canals? |
|
Definition
| Jellyfish have radial channels. External water travels through these channels in a circular movement. To move the liquid, the jelly contracts and contorts its body to raise its pressure locally. They can then move the water in their channels. |
|
|
Term
| Difference between the whole body movements of the nematode and the flatworm? |
|
Definition
| Flatworms move interstitial fluids around cells. Nematodes move coeloemic fluid in the body cavity. |
|
|
Term
| True or false; Nematodes have a pseudocavity |
|
Definition
| True; they do not have a mesoderm lining, which is needed for a true body cavity. |
|
|
Term
| What is systolic pressure? |
|
Definition
| The blood pressure from the heart |
|
|
Term
| What is diastolic pressure? |
|
Definition
| The blood pressure the heart works against. |
|
|
Term
| What are some characteristics of the open circulation? |
|
Definition
- Few blood vessels
- No capillaries connecting arteries and veins
- ‘Blood’ enters - blood sinuses, bathes organs directly
- **** Blood and Interstitial Fluid are the same: hemolymph
- |
|
|
Term
| What are some characteristics of the closed circulation? |
|
Definition
- Discrete Arteries and Veins connected by capillaries
****- Blood is separate from Interstitial Fluid
- With a good pump, can create high pressure
***- Exchanges between the blood and tissues occur across the thin walls of capillaries |
|
|
Term
| What two systems are involved in the double circulation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
True or false; High speed pumps (macropumps) connected to large vessels are preferable to
Low speed pumps (micropumps) connected to small vessels |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or false; A muscle pump (heart) is less energetically efficient than a flagellum and/or cilium attached to small tubes |
|
Definition
| False; its more energetically efficent. |
|
|
Term
| In what two ways is cost of moving fluids measured? |
|
Definition
-Resistances to the flow of blood in blood vessels (diameter of the tube)
-Effort the heart puts into overcoming the pressure in blood vessels |
|
|
Term
| ______ is required to overcome the “resistances to flow” |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are three resistances that slow down flow of fluids? |
|
Definition
length of tubes
viscosity of fluids
decreasing diameter of tubes |
|
|
Term
| What is Posieulle's Formula? What does it measure? |
|
Definition
| Flow = Pressure gradient / radius/length/viscosity. Flow increases with pressure gradient and increasing radius |
|
|
Term
| Why is length a resistance to flow? |
|
Definition
| Drag is going to be higher if this tube is longer. |
|
|
Term
| Large vessels have ____ surface area to volume ratios, so ____ drag |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Small vessels have ____ surface area to volume ratios, so ____ drag |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or false: influence of wall resistance lessens with increasing diameter |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the two main reasons blood is viscous? |
|
Definition
Number of cellular elements in blood
Concentration of proteins in blood |
|
|
Term
| Is drag less/more in wide/narrow tubes? |
|
Definition
| Less in wide and more in narrow. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the arteriole system? What happens to Surface area, BP, and velocity? |
|
Definition
| Arteriole system is branching tubes that become increasignly short and narrow. The BP falls drammatically at the end of the arteriole system from high to low. Surface area increase with a decrease in BP. Velocity also decreases once the branching occurs. |
|
|
Term
| ______ have the most variable diameter of vessels |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the Law of Continuity for Speed of flow? |
|
Definition
Flow speeds up as fluids enter a narrower tube.
Or, slows down as it passes from a narrow tube into a wider tube |
|
|
Term
| How does blood follow for the law of continuity? Why? |
|
Definition
| The blood does not follow this law. It is fast in transit (wide tubes) and slow in transfer (narrow) in order for diffusion to happen. |
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Term
| Why is the surface area of the cappalilares so large? |
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Definition
| They branch out to many organs, giving them a larger area. |
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Term
| How is the velocity of the blood in a certain area calculated? |
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Definition
| Volume of the blood/the area in which it flows (cappillaries, arterioles, etc.) |
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Term
| What is the velocity of the vena cava? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the velocity of the aorta? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the velocity of capillaries? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What has the growth of chambers of the heart through evolution signified? |
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Definition
| This progression has led to an increasing separation of blood flow to the gas exchange organs and to the rest of the body. |
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Term
| Explain how the blood comes into the heart from the body and moves to the lungs. |
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Definition
| The blood above the heart (deoxyginated) is moved to the right atrium by the superior vena cava. Blood from below the heart comes in through the inferior vena cava. The right atrium contracts to open right AV valve and move blood to right atrium. The right ventricle pumps contracts to close the right AV value and open hte pulmonary valve to send the blood to the lungs. |
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Term
| Explain how blood comes from the lungs back into the heart and goes throughout the body. |
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Definition
| The blood (oxyignated) moves through the pulmonary veins to the left arium. It contracts and it fills into the left ventricle. The ventricle contracts and the mitric valve is close and the aoritc valve is opened. The blood goes out through the body and as pressure falls the aortic valve is shut. |
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Term
| Which vessels are slow and small (narrow), and used for transfer? |
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Definition
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Term
| Which vessels are fast, large (wide), and used for transit? |
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Definition
| Aorta and all other vessels. |
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Term
| What is isovolumtertic contraction? |
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Definition
| a contraction that doesn’t change the volume of the blood in the heart. |
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Term
| Describe what happens in the two phases of the cardiac cycle? |
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Definition
| In systole, the ventricles contract and partially empty; and diastole, in which they relax and fill. |
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Term
| Explain how the lub sound is made? |
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Definition
| The lub sound is caused by the shutting of the bicuspid/mitral valve (left AV valve) and the tricuspid valve (right AV valve). This occurs when blood from the atrial chambers enter the ventricles. |
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Term
| Explain how the dub sound it made? |
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Definition
| The dub sound is caused by the shutting of the aortic valve and the pulmonary valve. This occurs when the blood from the ventricles are pumped out into the lungs and the rest of the body. |
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Term
| What are the four parts of the left atrium's cardiac cycle? Which are systole and diastole? When is lub and dub heard? |
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Definition
1 = filling phase
2 = isovolumetric contraction
3 = emptying phase
4 = isovolumetric relaxation
Diastole is 4 and 1 and Systole is 3 and 2
Lub is made after 1, and dub is made after 3. |
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Term
| What is the equation for Cardiac Output? |
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Definition
| Cardiac Output = Heart Rate X Stroke Volume (Force of contraction) |
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Term
| What are the two pacemakers in the heart? where are they located? which one dominates the other? |
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Definition
| Sinal Atrial Node and (SA Node) and the AV node. Right atrium. SA dominates AV. |
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Term
| Where does the sympathetic nerve connect to the heart, where does the parasympathetic nerve connect? What is the parasympathetic nerve called? |
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Definition
| Sympathetic goes to the heart muscle. Parasympathetic goes to the AV and SA node. The parasympathetic is called vegas nerve. |
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Term
| Which pacemaker sets the heart rate? |
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Definition
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Term
| How does sympathetic nervous system speeds up the heart rate? |
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Definition
| The sympathetic nervous system speeds up the heart rate by depolarizing the pacemaker membrane sooner than normal. This causes the potential to reach threshold sooner and thus generate an action potential sooner |
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Term
| How does parasympathetic nervous system speeds up the heart rate? |
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Definition
| The parasympathetic nervous system slows the heart rate down by hyperpolarizing the pacemaker membrane, and slowing the depolarization. This causes the potential to reach threshold more slowly and thus delays the appearance of the action potential |
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Term
| Heart rate is controlled by the ____ ___ ___, which affects the excitability of the ____ ____ |
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Definition
| Autonomic Nervous System; pacemaker cells |
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Term
| Why is calcium important in the heart? |
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Definition
| It is useful excitation-coupling in the body. |
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Term
| What is the end diastolic volume? |
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Definition
| The volume of blood that is trapped in the heart when the 2 vales are shut |
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Term
| How does the refractory period of the heart prevent tetanus? |
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Definition
| It lasts throughout the contraction. |
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Term
| What is the end systeolic volume? |
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Definition
| the heart does not empty entirely with each beat. There is always a residual volume left in the chamber |
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Term
| The sympathetic nervous system _____ the force of contraction. This causes the heart to _____ more blood |
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Definition
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Term
| ____, from the adrenal medulla, ______ the sympathetic action. It binds to ______. |
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Definition
| Adrenaline, increases, b-receptors |
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Term
| How do B-blockers lower the heart rate? |
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Definition
| b-blockers bind to b receptors and reduce adrenaline & sympathetic action on the heart muscle, lowering the force of contraction, thus lowering blood pressure. They also slow the heart rate |
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Term
| What are pre-cappillary spchinters? |
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Definition
| Pre cappilary spcincters adjusts the flow of the blood to the supply and demand of the tissue. The sphinters relax if tissues need more blood. |
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Term
|
Definition
form an exchange sheet for
diffusion
bulk flow
active transport |
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Term
| What type of cell are capillaries? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are some ways to cross a capillaries? |
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Definition
| Diffusion through pores, diffusion through the cells, and diffusion through the water-filled pores. |
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Term
| What are three types of capillaries? Where are they located? |
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Definition
| Continous (muscle,skin,tissue), fenestrated (kidney, pancreas, gall bladder), and discontinuous (liver, spleen, ovaries) |
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Term
| What is the sponging effect of proteins? |
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Definition
| The onctotic pressure of proteins as they tend to attract water to themselves. They act like sponges in that matter. |
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Term
| What is the equation for Starling’s Principle of the Capillaries? |
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Definition
| Effective flux (flow)=Blood pressure-oncotic pressure of proteins. |
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Term
| What is filitration? Where does it occur? |
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Definition
| Filitration is moving the liquids from the capparlies to the intersttaial fluid. Occurs in arteries. |
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Term
| What is drainage? Where does it occur? |
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Definition
| Drainage moves liquids from the interstial fluid to the the cappraliies. Occurs in veins. |
|
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Term
| when blood pressure is greater than oncotic pressure of proteins, what happens? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| When blood pressure is below oncotic pressure of proteins, what happens? |
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Definition
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Term
| True or False; Diameter of arteriole changes flow rate into capillaries |
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Definition
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Term
| True or false;The weaker force determines the DIRECTION of flux. |
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Definition
| False; the dominant force does. |
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Term
True or false; The difference between the two forces
determines the MAGNITUDE (how much volume) of flux |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What are the 2 major imbalances of filtration and drainage? |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| accumulation of fluid in the interstitial area |
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Term
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Definition
| not enough filtration leading to insufficient oxygenation of the tissues. Can lead to necrosis and gangrene |
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Term
| What are the 5 causes of Edema? |
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Definition
Increased capillary blood pressure
Reduced plasma protein osmotic pressure
Increased capillary permeability
Increased tissue osmotic pressure
Obstruction of lymphatic ducts |
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Term
| What controls blood pressure for a short term? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What 3 things controls blood pressure long term? |
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Definition
| Fluids shifting across capillaries, kidneys, hormones. |
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Term
| True or false; sympathetic and parasympathetic work individually, not at the same time. |
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Definition
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Term
| Which blood vessel has muscles that can be stimulated by nerves? |
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Definition
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Term
| Explain how blood pressure is regulated to control heart rate. |
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Definition
| Chemoreceptors and strech receptors in aortic and cartiod body detect a change and go to the cardiovascular center in the medulla. The medulla uses the parasymp to decrease heart rate by decreasing BP. The symp is used to increase heart rate through the adrenal gland by increasing BP. |
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Term
| Both sympathetic and parasympathetic influence the pacemaker, but the symp can go the ______. |
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Definition
| Myocardium (heart muscle) |
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Term
| Explain how the parasympathetic regulates high blood pressure through the heart? |
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Definition
| decreases heart rate, decreases cardiac output, and then decreases blood pressure. |
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Term
| Explain how the sympathetic regulates low BP through the heart? |
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Definition
| heart rate increases and cardiac output increases, which increases BP. OR contractile strength of heart increases , stroke volume increases, and then cradiac output increases and BP increases. |
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Term
| Explain sympathetic regulates low BP through the veins? |
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Definition
| Increase vasconstriction, increase venous return, increase stroke volume,, increase caridac out put, and increase BP |
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Term
| Explain sympathetic regulates low BP through the arterioles? |
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Definition
| Increase vasoconstriction, increase total peripheral resistance, and increase BP. |
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Term
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Definition
| the pooling of the blood when you come from lying down from standing up, which makes your BP very low for a breif period of time |
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Term
| Explain how the kidneys decreases high BP/ |
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Definition
| High BP leads to a higher filitration rate in kindeys, leading to lower plasma and blood volumes, which leads to decrease venous pressure, decrease venous return, decrease end-diastolic volume, decrease stroke volume, and decrease cardiac output, reducing BP. |
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Term
| How does ADH influence BP and blood volume? |
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Definition
| When blood pressure falls, the strech receptors decerease (aortic and cardiac receptors don’t produce many AP), ifnormation going to neurosectory cells and they release ADH, ADH constircts BP and raises BP back to normal. ADH allows for more water absorbtion, which allow for a expanded blow volume. |
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Term
| How does renin influence BP and blood volume? |
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Definition
| The kidney flow of blood into the glomerulus diminsihes, the JGA cells release renin and causes angio to be relased. Angio also constricts the blood vessel and raises the BP.Angiotensin can cause the secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex. It insets sdoium pumps in the distal tubes, which means more salt is in the blood (water comes with salt), so blood volume increases. |
|
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Term
| What is xylem? What two transport tubes does it use? |
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Definition
| transports water and minerals via Tracheids and Vessel Elements |
|
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Term
| What is phloem? What two transport tubes does it use? |
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Definition
| transports sugars via Sieve Tubes with Companion cells |
|
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Term
| Xylem is made from ____ cells, phloem is made from _____ |
|
Definition
|
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Term
| Phloem is a _____ wall with ____ ____; xylem is a _____ wall with ____. |
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Definition
| thin;sieve plates thick;ligin |
|
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Term
| Which vascular tissue in plants has two-way flow? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which vascular tissue in plants had cells with end perforations? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What is an apoplast and symplast? Which is regulated and which isn't? |
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Definition
| Apoplast goes along walls and between cells, and symplast goes through cells. Both transport water and minerals to cells. Symplast is regulated, apoplsat is not. |
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Term
| What prevents apolostic movement in plants? Why? |
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Definition
| Caspian Strip; It has suberin (water-repellant) |
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Term
| Positive root pressure causes what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How is water moved up plants? |
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Definition
| Leaves create suction pressure to move water upwards. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| H2o sticking to walls of plants. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| H2O sticking to each other because of hydrogen bonds. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Pull casued by evaporation. |
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Term
| What is the evaporation-cohesion model? Explain the three steps |
|
Definition
| Depicts transpiration in the xylem. (1) Evaporation causes tension on water, (2) water stickts to xylem walls through adhesion, (3) water moves upwards through cohesion. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Evaporation in the leaf produces tension in the surface film of water on the moist-walled mesophyll cells, thus pulling water and dissolved minerals up the xylem from the root |
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Term
| True or false; water cannot move laterally |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the source-sink model? |
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Definition
| The source-sink model transports nutrients from the source to the pholoem and then these substances will flow to an area of use (known as the sink). Source is production of sugar. |
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|
Term
| What is translocation? What transport vessel does it use? |
|
Definition
| Movement of sugars to various parts of the plant. Sieve tubes in phloem |
|
|
Term
| True or false; translocation needs ATP |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Translocation proceeds in ___ ____ in the stem, although in a single sieve tube it goes only ___ ___. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or false; sugar moves apolostically |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Do we have a bulk flow system in plants? if so, where? |
|
Definition
| Difference in solute concentration between sources and sinks allows a difference in pressure potential along sieve tubes, resulting in bulk flow |
|
|
Term
| Explain the translocation process? |
|
Definition
Source cells pump sugar into sieve elements
Water from xylem enters sieve elements by osmosis
This raises pressure here
Pressure forces sap away toward lower pressure areas
In Sink area, water leaves for xylem by osmosis
In sink area, sugar leaves for plant cells |
|
|
Term
| What are the sources of bulk flow for xylem and phloem |
|
Definition
xylem--transpiration from leaves.
phloem--active transport of sugar at source. |
|
|
Term
| What are the sites of bulk flow for xylem and phloem? |
|
Definition
xylem--dead vessel elements
phloem--living sieve tube |
|
|
Term
| What is the pressure of the gradient in xylem and phloem |
|
Definition
| negative for xylem, positive for phloem. |
|
|
Term
| Explain why the heart is more at rest than it is active? |
|
Definition
| Coronary circulation feed the heart muscles during diastole. This occurs when the heart is at rest. |
|
|
Term
| What is electrical syncytium? |
|
Definition
| The heart cell that beats the fastest imposes its rhythm on the others when they touch each other. |
|
|
Term
| 3 Effects of sympathetic stimulation on stroke volume of the heart? |
|
Definition
| Increase relaxation and contraction rate and heightened contraction |
|
|
Term
| Which circulatory system has low blood pressure? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is hemolymph? Where is it found? |
|
Definition
| Blood and Interstitial Fluid are the same. Found in open circulatory systems. |
|
|
Term
| Vasodiliation ______ cappilary pressure. Vasoconstriction _____ cappilary pressure. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is Starling's Law of the Heart? |
|
Definition
| The more you fill the end diastolic volume, the more the heart will eject blood |
|
|
Term
| In order for a vessel to be a capillary, what MUST ir have? |
|
Definition
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