Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Energy of motion, actively performing work |
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Term
| Total amount of energy remains constant; conservation of energy |
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Definition
| First Law of Thermodynamics |
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Term
| Energy is lost to heat in ever energy conversion; every energy conversion increases the entropy of the universe |
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Definition
| Second Law of Thermodynamics |
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Definition
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Definition
| processes that build complex molecules from simpler ones |
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Definition
| processes that break down complex molecules into simpler ones |
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Definition
| energy available to do work in a chemical reactions; depends on bond energy and concentrations of reactants and products |
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Definition
| energy required to break a bond |
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Definition
| when relative concentrations of reactants and products is constant; forward and reverse reactions are equal |
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Definition
| products have less free energy than reactants; downhill reaction; energy is released; spontaneous reaction; ATP + H20 -> ADP + P |
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Term
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Definition
| products have more free energy than reactants; energy must be supplied to carry out reaction; not spontaneous; the making of ATP |
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Term
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Definition
| catabolic reactions are usually ______ |
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Term
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Definition
| anabolic reactions are usually _______ |
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Term
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Definition
| coupled reactions must have a net _______ nature |
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Definition
| main energy currency in cells |
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Term
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Definition
| ATP is broken down into ADP by |
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Term
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Definition
| amount of energy released when ATP is broken down into ADP |
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Term
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Definition
| compounds only present in the middle of a chemical reaction |
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Term
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Definition
| ATP is created in ________ reactions and used in __________ reactions |
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Definition
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Definition
| gaining electrons and energy |
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Term
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Definition
| losing electrons and energy |
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Definition
| organic molecule that acts as a catalyst to chemical reactions |
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Term
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Definition
| enzymes alter the ________ rate by lowering the ________ energy |
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Term
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Definition
| substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed in the reaction |
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Definition
| energy required to break existing bonds so the chemical reaction can occur |
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Term
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Definition
| complex formed when the enzyme and substrate bind together; unstable and short-lived |
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Term
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Definition
| the site where the substrate binds to the enzyme |
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Term
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Definition
| changes that occur in the shape of the enzyme and the substrates when the enzyme-substrate complex forms |
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Term
| 1.) enzyme holds reactants together in the right orientation for the reaction to occur; 2.) enzymemay put a strain on existing bonds, making them easier to break; 3.) enzyme provides a microenvironment that is more chemically suited for the reaction; 4.) sometimes the active site of the enzyme is involved in the reaction |
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Definition
| 4 reasons enzymes reduce the activation energy |
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Term
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Definition
| organic or inorganic molecules that work with an apoenzyme to create an active active enzyme |
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Term
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Definition
| an enzyme that requires a cofactor to work |
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Term
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Definition
| coenzymes; ATP, NADH, NADPH; typically changed by the reaction |
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Term
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Definition
| metal ions; typically not changed by the reaction |
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Term
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Definition
| every enzyme has an optimal ______ and ___ level and with they are most active |
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Term
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Definition
| high temps and extreme pH levels tend to ______ enzymes |
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Term
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Definition
| increasing the substrate amount will _______ the reaction rate |
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Term
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Definition
| increasing the enzyme amount will _______ the reaction rate |
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Term
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Definition
| reduce or eliminate catalytic activity |
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Term
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Definition
| allow or enhance catalytic activity |
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Term
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Definition
| receptor site on an enzyme where an inhibitor or activator can bind |
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Term
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Definition
| when the last product in a metabolic pathway binds to an allosteric site of an enzyme in an early step of the pathway and inhibits the activity of the enzyme |
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Term
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Definition
| enzyme is permanently inactivated or destroyed; includes many drugs or toxins |
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Term
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Definition
| if inhibitor is removed, the enzyme can be recovered |
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Term
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Definition
| inhibitor is similar in sturcture to a substrate; competes with substrate for binding to the active site |
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Term
| noncompetitive inhibition |
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Definition
| binds at allosteric site; alters enzyme shape to make active site unavailable |
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Term
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Definition
| chromosomes are made up of _______ and _______ |
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Term
| proteins have a greater variety of three-dimensional forms than DNA; proteins are made up of 20 amino acids and DNA is made up of four nucleotides |
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Definition
| Scientists believed that genetic material was made of proteins because... |
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Term
| transforming principle from heat killed S strain changed the R strain to make it deadly |
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Definition
| Griffith's study in the 1920s |
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Term
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Definition
| Hershey Chase Experiment used ______ and ________ |
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Term
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Definition
| phage proteins were labeled with _____ and DNA was labeled with ______ in the Hershey Chase experiment |
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Term
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Definition
| _____ was the pellet in the Hershey Chase experiment |
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Term
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Definition
| ________ was the supernatant in the Hershey Chase experiment |
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Term
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Definition
| after centrifugation, _____ stayed with the phage |
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Term
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Definition
| after centrifugation, _____ stayed with the bacteria |
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Term
| 5-carbon deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base |
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Definition
| DNA is made up of ____, _____, and _____ |
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Term
| adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| 5' end of DNA has _____ at the end |
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Term
| 5-carbon deoxyribose sugar |
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Definition
| 3' end of DNA has ____ at the end |
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Term
| adenine and guanine, 2 rings in the nitrogenous base |
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Definition
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Term
| thymine, cytosine, uracil; 1 ring in the nitrogenous base |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| adenine pairs with ____ in DNA |
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Definition
| guanine pairs with ______ |
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Term
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Definition
| scientists that published the double helix model of DNA |
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Term
| phosphodiester linkages, covalent bonds |
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Definition
| nucleotide chain in DNA held together by |
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Definition
| DNA strands held together by ______ bonds between the bases |
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Term
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Definition
| A and T have ____ hydrogen bonds |
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Term
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Definition
| C and G have ___ hydrogen bonds |
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Term
| semiconservative replication |
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Definition
| new DNA double helix has one old strand, one new strand |
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Term
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Definition
| scientists who developed semiconservative replication theory |
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Term
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Definition
| Meselson and Stahl used _____ isotopes to label new DNA strands and ____ isotopes to label old DNA strands |
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Term
| one bar in the middle, indicating equal mix of 14N and 15N |
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Definition
| after one round of replication, the test tube looked like... |
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Term
| one bar in the middle - equal parts of 14N and 15N,and one bar at the top - just 14N |
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Definition
| after 2 rounds of DNA replication, test tube looked like... |
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Term
| origin of replication; replication bubble |
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Definition
| DNA replication begins at an ______, creating a ______ |
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Term
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Definition
| _____ unwinds and opens the DNA helix |
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Term
| single-strand DNA binding proteins |
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Definition
| _____ keeps the replication bubble open |
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Term
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Definition
| _____ break and rejoin strands, resolving knots and strains that occur |
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Term
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Definition
| ______ direct the synthesis of DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA synthesis proceeds in the ___ to ___ direction |
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Term
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Definition
| _____ starts the new DNA strand by adding _______ that is about 10 nucleotides long |
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Term
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Definition
| this strand has its 3' end at the replication fork; synthesis proceeds continuously in the direction the fork moves |
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Term
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Definition
| this strand has its 5' end at the fork; synthesized in the opposite direction that the fork moves |
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Term
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Definition
| the lagging strand is made in short _____ fragments |
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Term
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Definition
| Okazaki fragments are connected by _____ |
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Term
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Definition
| _____ proofreads the DNA and makes corrections |
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Term
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Definition
| the ends of chromosomes are called _____ |
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Term
| 5' end RNA primer cannot be replaced with DNA creating 5' end gaps; leads to shorting of chromosomes at the ends with each generation |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| _____ can generate longer telomeres |
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Term
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Definition
| main packaging mechanism for eukaryotic DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| nucleosomes are made up of 8 proteins called ______ |
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Term
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Definition
| histones are _____ charged attracting them to ____ charged DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| nucleosomes are linked together with ____ ____ regions |
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Term
| H1; 30 nm chromatin fiber |
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Definition
| another histone _____ associates with linker DNA regions to pack nucleosomes into a _______ |
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Term
| looped domains; scaffolding proteins |
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Definition
| 30 nm fibers form _____ which are attached to _____ |
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Term
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Definition
| looped domains form ______ |
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Term
| Inborn Errors of Metabolism |
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Definition
| the idea that genes are responsible for making enzymes was published in this work |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| type of RNA that copies instructions from the gene |
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Term
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Definition
| type of RNA that links with amino acids and brings them to the appropriate site for incorporation in proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| main structural and catalytic components of ribsomes, where proteins are actually produced |
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Term
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Definition
| Central Dogma of Gene Expression |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| RNA is synthesized as a complementary strand using __________ |
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Term
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Definition
| RNA polymerase __ is used in making rRNA |
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Term
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Definition
| RNA polymerase __ is used in making mRNA and some small RNA molecules |
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Term
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Definition
| RNA polymerase __ is used in making tRNA and some small RNA molecules |
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Term
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Definition
| RNA polymerase uses ______ to build a new strand |
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Term
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Definition
| new RNA strands are built in the _______ direction |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA is read to make RNA in the _______ direction |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA strand that is read to make RNA |
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Term
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Definition
| towards the 5' end of the RNA strand or toward 3' end of the template strand (away from the direction of synthesis) |
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Term
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Definition
| towards the 3' end of the RNA strand, or toward the 5' end of the template strand |
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Term
| initiation, elongation, termination |
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Definition
| 3 stages of transcription |
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Term
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Definition
| site where RNA polymerase initially binds to DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| bind to the promoter and facilitate the binding of RNA polymerase to the site |
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Term
| transcription initiation complex |
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Definition
| completed assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase at the promoter region |
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Term
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Definition
| sequences of three bases that instruct for the addition of a particular amino acid |
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Term
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Definition
| codons are always read in the _____ direction on mRNA |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| mRNA is made in the _______ in eukaryotes |
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Term
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Definition
| mRNA is made in the _______ in prokaryotes |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| complexes of RNA and protein, with two subunits; help to catalyze translation |
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Term
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Definition
| sequence on tRNA that forms a complementary base pairing with a codon on mRNA |
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Term
| aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases |
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Definition
| ______ links tRNA to the appropriate amino acid |
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Term
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Definition
| tRNA that has an amino acid attached to it |
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Term
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Definition
| 3 sites on the large ribosomal subunit |
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Term
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Definition
| where uncharged tRNA molecules are moved and then released |
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Term
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Definition
| where the completed part of the polypeptide chain will be attached to tRNA |
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Term
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Definition
| where the new amino acid will enter on an activated tRNA as a polypeptide is made |
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Term
| initiation, elongation, termination |
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Definition
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Term
| initiator tRNA is loaded onto small ribosomal subunit; initiator tRNA recognizes the AUG start codon; small ribosomal unit binds to mRNA; large ribosomal subunit then binds to that intitiation complex; initiator tRNA is at the P site |
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Definition
| steps of translation initiation |
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Term
| tRNAs move from A site to P site to E site |
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Definition
| steps of elongation of translation |
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Term
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Definition
| polypeptides are synthesized on ribosomes starting at the amino terminal and proceeding to the carboxy terminal |
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Term
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Definition
| mRNAs are translated in this direction |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| causes everything to dissociate, freeing the polypeptide, mRNA, tRNA and ribosomal subunits |
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Term
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Definition
| complex that allows many ribosomes to translate an mRNA at the same time |
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Term
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Definition
| mRNA that has not been modified yet |
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Term
| 5' cap added to beginning of mRNA; polyadenylation/3' tail is added; intron and exon splicing |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| 5' cap of mRNA is made of ______ residue, and is required for binding to _______ |
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Term
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Definition
| 3' tail of mRNA is made of series of _____, and leads to the termination of _______ |
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Term
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Definition
| streches of bases on mRNA that interrupt the sequence and must be removed |
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Term
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Definition
| regions of interrupting bases that will not be removed from mRNA |
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Term
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Definition
| process of removing introns |
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Term
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Definition
| _____ are made of small RNA molecules and proteins and associate with the mRNA in a complex called _____ |
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Term
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Definition
| process of only splicing out certain exons that will create different polypeptides from the same mRNA |
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Term
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Definition
| changes in the DNA sequence |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| mutagens that incease the likelihood of cancer |
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Definition
| mutations that result in the substitution of one base for another |
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Definition
| mutation that does not actually cause a change in what amino acid is coded for |
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Definition
| a point mutation that causes a change in what amino acid is coded for |
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Definition
| a point mutation resulting in the formation of a stop codon where an amino acid was previously coded for |
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Term
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Definition
| sickle cell anemia is a _____ mutation |
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Term
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Definition
| mutations that shift the reading frame (when nucleotides are either added or deleted) |
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Term
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Definition
| proteins that regulate transcription |
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Term
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Definition
| transcription factors that suppress or stop gene expression |
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Term
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Definition
| transcription factors that either activate gene expression or that enhance gene expression |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA regions, often far from the promoter, where activators will bind either directly or indirectly |
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Term
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Definition
| housekeeping genes; constantly transcribed with little or no regulation |
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