Term
|
Definition
broad pattern of evolution above the species level.
Shows us that the origin of new species has been affected by factors that are both bottom (natural selection) up and top down (continental drift). |
|
|
Term
| Production of Simple Cells on Early Earth (4) |
|
Definition
1. synthesis of small organic molecules
2. formation of macro molecules
3. packaging into protocells |
|
|
Term
| When did early Earth form? |
|
Definition
| roughly 4.6 billion years ago |
|
|
Term
| What was Early Earth like? |
|
Definition
bombarded by ice and rock, no life.
After this period, the atmosphere is thick with water vapor and compounds released by volcanic eruptions. (nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and hydrogen sulfide)
Earth's atmosphere is hypothesized to be a reducing environment (electron adding, high in ammonia and methane and low in oxygen). |
|
|
Term
| Gases and compounds present on early earth (6) |
|
Definition
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide.
Reducing environment (electron adding...high in ammonia and methane and low in oxygen). |
|
|
Term
| How could organic compound have formed on early earth? |
|
Definition
lightening
intense UV
deep-see vents (hydrothermal vents)
volcanic eruptions
meteorites |
|
|
Term
| 1. Abiotic Synthesis of Small Organic Molecules |
|
Definition
atmosphere thick with water vapor and compounds released by volcanic eruptions.
reducing environment.
organic compounds could have formed using energy from lightening, intense UV, hydrothermal vents, volcanic eruptions and meteorites |
|
|
Term
| 2. Synthesis of Macromolecules |
|
Definition
synthesis of RNA monomers can occur spontaneously from simple precursor molecules (small organic compounds).
Small organic molecules polymerize when they are concentrated on hot sand, clay or rock.
Organic compounds-->monomers-->polymer |
|
|
Term
| 3. Formation of Protocells |
|
Definition
All organisms must be able to self-replicate and undergo metabolism. Conditions like this may have been present in vesicles.
adding clay-like materials (like montoriorillonite from volcanic ash) increases the rate of vesicle self-assembly.
RNA and other organic molecules can be attached to montmorillonite. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
fluid-filled compartments with a membrane-like structures.
Can be produced abiotically.
can undergo simple reproduction and metabolism.
can maintain an internal chemical environment different from surroundings. |
|
|
Term
| 4. Self-replicating molecules |
|
Definition
First genetic material was likely RNA.
RNA can carry out a number of enzyme-like functions (ribozymes.
some ribozymes can make complementary copies of short pieces of RNA.
single-stranded RNA molecules assume a variety of specific 3D shapes.
Some shapes are more stable and replicate faster in some environments.
Ribozymes that are more successful at replicating leave more descendant molecules (natural selection).
Early Earth may have been an RNA world.
vesicle and ribozyme= protocell with genetic information.
RNA could also have provided the template for DNA nucleotide assembly. |
|
|
Term
| What was the first genetic material on Earth? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
RNA can carry out a number of enzyme-like catalytic functions.
make complementary copies of short pieces.
of RNA.
Ribozymes that are more successful at replicating leave more descendant molecules (natural selection). |
|
|
Term
| Fossils can be round in: (3) |
|
Definition
| Sedimentary rock. Amber. Frozen in Ice. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
175- rhomaleosaurus victor
270- dimetrodon
375- tiktaalik
400- coccosteus cuspidatus
525- hallucigenia
565- dickinsenia costata
1500- tappania
3500- fossilized stromatolite |
|
|
Term
| Key events in life's history (3) |
|
Definition
| archaean, proterozoic and phanerozoic eons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
divided into 3 eras that each represent a distinct age in the history of the Earth.
ex) mesozoic era- age of reptiles
boundaries correspond to major extinction events |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
oldest known fossils are 3.5 billion years old.
rocks formed when prokaryotes bind thin layers of sediment together |
|
|
Term
| Photosynthesis and the Oxygen Revolution |
|
Definition
most oxygen is produced during photosynthesis.
Oxygen produced by oxygenic photosynthesis reacted with dissolved iron and precipated out to form banded iron formations.
2.7 billion years ago: oxygen began accumulating in the atmosphere and rusting iron-rich terrestrial rocks. |
|
|
Term
| Oxygen Revolution Occurred_____. And resulted in________. |
|
Definition
2.7-2.3 billion years ago.
caused extinction of many prokaryotic groups.
some groups survived and adapted using cellular respiration to harvest energy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the oldest eukaryotic cells (fossils) date back to 2.1 billion years. |
|
|
Term
| Eukaryotic Cells Have: (4) |
|
Definition
| nuclear envelope, mitochondria, cytoskeleton and endoplasmic reticulum. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Mitochondria and plastids were formally small prokaryotes living with larger host cells.
The prokaryotic ancestors of mitochondria and plastids probably gained entry to the host cells as undigested prey or internal parasites. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mitochondria evolved before plastids through a sequence of endosymbiotic events |
|
|
Term
| The Origin of Multicellularity |
|
Definition
Structural complexity of eukaryotic cells allowed for a greater range of unicellular forms.
A second wave of diversification occurred when multicellularity evolved and gave rise to algae, plants, fungi, and animals. |
|
|
Term
| The Earliest Multicellular Eukaryotes |
|
Definition
Oldest known fossils are relatively small algae that lived roughly 1.2 billion years ago.
larger ones didn't appear until 575 million years ago "ediacaran biota" |
|
|
Term
| Snowball Earth Hypothesis |
|
Definition
severe ice ages occured from 750-580 million years ago.
Life would have been confined to areas near deep-sea vents and hot springs or to areas that lacked ice cover. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Around 535-525 million years ago.
many animal phyla appear suddenly in the fossil record.
prior to this, animals appear to be soft-bodied grazers and scavengers.
Brought predators and new defensive adaptations. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
larger forms of life began to colonize land (fungi, plants, animals) 500 million years ago.
Adaptations made it possible to grow and reproduce without dehydrating.
ex)vascular tissue, leaf coats, etc.
Plants and fungi colonized together
Arthropods were the first group to colonize land (420 million years ago) most wide spread and diverse group of animals today.
Tetrapods show up in the fossil records about 265 million years ago, but the human species only originated 195,000 years ago. |
|
|
Term
| What was the first group to colonize land? |
|
Definition
| Arthropods. 420 million years ago. |
|
|
Term
| When do Tetrapods show up in the fossil record? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When did the human species originate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Fates of groups have been influenced by: (3) |
|
Definition
| plate tectonics. mass extinctions. adaptive radiations. |
|
|
Term
| Super Continents Occured: (3) |
|
Definition
| 1.1 billion years ago, 600 million years ago and 250 million years ago. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Earth's crust is composed of plates floating on Earth's mantle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
250 million years ago.
deepening of ocean basins.
reduction in shallow water habitat.
a colder and drier climate inland. |
|
|
Term
| Continental Drifts Effects on Living Organisms (3) |
|
Definition
A continents climate can change as it moves north or south.
Separation of land masses can lead to allopatric speciation.
The distribution of fossils and living groups reflects the historic movement of continents. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| changes to a species environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| results of disruptive global environmental changes. the rate of extinction increased dramatically |
|
|
Term
| The "Big Five" Mass Extinction Events |
|
Definition
Well documented in the Fossil Record, particularly those that lived in shallow seas.
In each, 50 % or more of the Earth's marine species became extinct. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
occurred 251 million years ago and lasted less than 500,000 years.
enormous volcanic eruptions in Siberia= lava, ash and carbon dioxide |
|
|
Term
| Cretaceous Mass Extinction |
|
Definition
occurred 65.6 million years ago.
possibly due to an asteroid or comet hitting earth (presence of iridium in a clay layer)= cloud of debris |
|
|
Term
| Is the 6th Mass Extinction Under Way? |
|
Definition
| human activities are drastically altering the global environment. More than 1000 species have become extinct in the last 400 years. Fossil records indicate that extinction rates increase with higher global temperatures. |
|
|
Term
| Consequences of Mass Extinctions |
|
Definition
loss of diversity and changes to ecological communities.
ex) after permian and cretaceous mass extinctions, there was an increase in the percentage of marine predators. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| periods of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species. |
|
|
Term
| Adaptive Radiations may follow: (3) |
|
Definition
mass extinctions.
the evolution of novel characteristics.
The colonization of new regions. |
|
|
Term
| Worldwide Adaptive Radiations |
|
Definition
Mammals underwent an adaptive radiation after the extinction of terrestrial dinosaurs.
The disappearance of dinosaurs (except birds) allowed for the expansion of mammals in diversity and size |
|
|
Term
| Major Evolutionary Innovations Facilitated New Ecological Roles: (3) |
|
Definition
photosynthetic prokaryotes.
large predators in the Cambrian explosion.
colonization of land by plants, insects, and tetrapods. |
|
|
Term
| Regional Adaptive Radiations |
|
Definition
limited geographical areas, few organisms arrive at a new location where there is little competition
ex)Hawaiian Archipelago
after species arrived from distant locations, evolutionary divergence occurred by natural selection.
1000s of species are not found elsewhere.
ex)silver sword alliance |
|
|
Term
| Macroevolution: Bottom-up factor |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Macroevoltution: Top-down factor |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
process in which new forms arise by the slight modification of existing forms.
Novel and complex structures can arise as gradual modifications of ancestral structures. ex)modification of the eye
Evolutionary trends should be examined in the context of all available evidence and remember that evolution is not goal orientated: organisms are not "trying to improve." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| naming and classification of organisms |
|
|
Term
Binomial Nomenclature:
Who? What? First and Second Part? |
|
Definition
linnaeus.
18th century.
Latin scientific names.
First part=genus (plural, genera)
second part= specific epithet |
|
|
Term
| Hierarchical Classification (8) |
|
Definition
| species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the evolutionary history of a species or group of species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
discipline focused on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships.
Can use fossil, molecular, and morphological data |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Branching diagram that represents the evolutionary history of a group of organisms.
Represents a hypothesis about evolutionary relationships. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| represents the divergence of two lineages from a common ancestor (where lineages diverge) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| groups that share an immediate common ancestor and are each other's closest relatives. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a branch at the very base of the tree represents the most common ancestor of all taxa in the tree. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a branch point where more than 2 groups emerge from, representing unresolved evolutionary relationships. |
|
|
Term
| What can we learn from phylogenic trees? (3) |
|
Definition
1. show patterns of descent, not phenotypic (morphological) similarity.
2. Sequencing of branching does not necessarily indicate the absolute ages of species.
3. A taxon on a tree did not necessarily evolve form the taxon next to it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
gather as much information as possible about morphology, genes, and biochemistry of organisms.
Focus on features that result from common ancestry. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| phenotypic and genetic similarities due to shared ancestry. |
|
|
Term
| Are organisms with shared characteristics expected to be more closely related than with those that possess different characteristics? |
|
Definition
| yes. but not always. ex) bird and bat wings. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| similarity due to convergent evolution. Analogous structures are called homoplasies |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reconstructing phylogenies based on common ancestry. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants.
Also considered a monophyletic group. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A clade. Includes ancestral species and all of its descendants. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| consists of an ancestral species and some of its descendants. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| includes taxa with different ancestors |
|
|
Term
| Shared Ancestral Character |
|
Definition
| originated in the ancestor of the taxon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in an evolutionary novelty unique to a clade. |
|
|
Term
| Early taxonomists classified life into 2 groups: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the 1960's there were 5 kingdoms: |
|
Definition
Monera (prokaryotes), Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia (last 4 eukaryotes).
Later realized that some prokaryotes differ as much from each other as they do from eukaryotes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Eukarya, Achaea, Bacteria.
Comparisons of complete genomes from all 3 domains shows that there have been substantial movements of genes between organisms in different domains. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
genes transferred from one genome to another via transposable elements, viral infection or fusions of organisms.
ex) mitochondria and cholorplast gene transfer |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Some researches sugges that eukaryotes arose as a fusion between bacerium and archaean. If so, early evolutionary relationships might be better depicted by a ring of life instead of a tree of life. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
late 1800s. the disease was still present after being passed through a filter designed to remove bacteria and could not be cultured on media.
1. extracted sap from tobacco plant with tobacco mosaic disease.
2. passed sap through a porcelain filter known to trap bacteria.
3. rubbed filtered sap on healthy tobacco plants.
4. healthy plants became infected |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
smallest- 20nm in diameter
largest- several hundred nm in diameter, barely visible under a light microscope. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
an infectious particle consisting of little more than genes packaged in a protein coat.
infect every form of life (may damage or kill cells or cause cells to produce toxins that lead to disease symptoms).
Can replicate only within cells.
evolved as bits of cellular nucleic acid after the first cells appeared. |
|
|
Term
| A virus can be classified by 2 groups |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| structure of viral genomes |
|
Definition
double or single stranded RNA
double or single stranded DNA |
|
|
Term
| How many genes do viruses have? |
|
Definition
| 4 to several hundred or 1000 genes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the protein shell enclosing the viral genome. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| protein subunits that build capsids. Usually all the same kind of protein. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rod-shaped, polyhedral, or more complex. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| membranous envelope surrounds the capsids of influenza viruses. Made with components from the host and virus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| have identical protein molecules arranged in a polyhedral capsid with 20 triangular facets |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| infect the respiratory tract of animals. no envelope dsDNA. tumor-causing virus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| have an outer envelope studded with glycoprotein spikes; genome consists of RNA molecules wrapped in a helical capsid |
|
|
Term
| The most complex capsids belong to: |
|
Definition
bacteriophages or phages.
Capsids have elongated icosahedral heads enclosing DNA and a protein tail piece with fibers to attach to bacteria |
|
|
Term
| Viruses are "obligate intracellular parasites" which means: |
|
Definition
| they lack enzymes and equipment for making protein. they replicate only within a host cell. |
|
|
Term
| Host Range (of the virus) |
|
Definition
| each particular virus can only infect cells of a limited number of host species. |
|
|
Term
| How do viruses usually identify host cells by: |
|
Definition
| lock and key fit between viral surface proteins and receptor molecules on the outside of cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. entry of coating
2. replication
3. transcription and manufacture of capsid proteins
4. self-assembly of new virus particles and their exit from the cell
-----------------------------
1. infection begins when virus binds to host cell and the viral genome enters the host cell
2. virus reprograms the host cell to copy the viral nuclei acid and,
3. manufacture viral capsid proteins (the host provides nucleotides, enzymes, ribosomes, tRNAs, amino acids, ATP and other components needed)
4. viral genome and capsid proteins self-assemble into new virus particles, which exit the cell |
|
|
Term
| 2 reproductive mechanisms of phages: |
|
Definition
| lytic cycle and lysogenic cycle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| phage replicative cycle that culminates in the death of the host cell. produces new phages and lyses (break open) the host's cell wall, releasing the progeny viruses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| phage that reproduces only by the lytic cycle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bacteria's defense against phages. recognizes and cuts up certain phages DNA |
|
|
Term
| Steps of the Lytic Cycle (5)` |
|
Definition
1. attachment
2. entry of phage DNA and degradation of host DNA
3. Synthesis of viral genomes and proteins
4. assembly (head, tail, tail fibres)
5. release |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
replicates the phage genome without destroying the host.
Phage DNA integrates into the bacterial chromosome becoming a prophage.
The bacterium reproduces, copying the prophage and transmitting it to daughter cells.
Cell divisions produce a population of bacteria infected with prophage.
Occasionally, a prophage exits the bacterial chromosome, initiating the lytic cycle.
Prophage DNA circularizes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| viral DNA is incorporated into the host cell's chromosome. |
|
|
Term
| 2 Key Variables Used to Classify Viruses that Infect Animals |
|
Definition
DNA or RNA?
single or double stranded? |
|
|
Term
| Why are animal viruses different from many bacteriophages |
|
Definition
| have both an envelope and RNA genome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| no envelope. dsDNA. Papillomavirus (warts, cervical cancer); polyomavirus (tumors) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| envelope. dsDNA. Herpes simplex 1 and 2. (cold sores, genital sores); varicella zoster (shingles, chicken pox); Epstein-Barr virus (mononucleosis); Burkitt's lymphoma |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| envelope. dsDNA. Smallpox virus; cowpox virus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| no envelope. ssDNA. B19 parvovirus (mild rash) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| no envelope. dsRNA. Rotavirus (diarrhea); Colorado tick fever virus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| no envelope. ssRNA (mRNA). Rhinovirus (common cold) poliovirus=hepatitis A virus; other enteric (intestinal) viruses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| envelope. ssRNA (mRNA). severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| envelope. ssRNA (mRNA). yellow fever virus. west nile virus. hepatitis C virus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Envelope. ssRNA (mRNA). Rubella virus. equine encephalitis viruses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| envelope. ssRNA template for mRNA synthesis. ebola virus (hemorrhagic fever) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| envelope. ssRNA template for mRNA synthesis. influenza virus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| envelope. ssRNA template for mRNA synthesis. measles virus. mumps virus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| envelope. ssRNA template for mRNA synthesis. rabies virus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
have the most complex replicative cycles and use reverse transcriptase to copy their RNA genome to DNA.
envelope. ssRNA template for DNA synthesis. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV/AIDS) RNA tumor viruses (leukemia) |
|
|
Term
| Animal viruses equipped with an en envelope use it to: |
|
Definition
| enter the host cell. Viral glycoproteins on the outer surface of the envelope bind to specific receptor molecules on the host cell surface. |
|
|
Term
| How do viral envelopes form? |
|
Definition
| some form from the host cell's plasma membrane as the viral capsids exit. Others form form the host's nuclear envelope and are then replaced by an envelope made from the golgi apparatus membrane. |
|
|
Term
| The broadest variety of RNA genomes is found in viruses that infect: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transcribes an RNA template into DNA, which is the opposite of the usual direction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| circular DNA found in bacteria and yeasts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small mobile DNA segments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| plasmids, transposons, and viruses |
|
|
Term
| Diseases caused by viral infections affect: |
|
Definition
| humans, agricultural crops, livestock worldwide |
|
|
Term
| Viroids and prions also caused disease in: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How much damage a virus does depends on: |
|
Definition
the ability of the infected tissue to recover
ex) epithelium of the respiratory tract can repair efficiently (common cold), whereas dame to mature nerve cells is permanent (polio) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| are harmless derivatives of pathogenic microbes that stimulate the immune system to mound defenses against the harmful pathogen. Can prevent certain viral illnesses. |
|
|
Term
| Viral infections cannot be treated by |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| can help to treat, though not cure, viral infections |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| those that suddenly become apparent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
are caused by new strains of influenza virus to people who have little immunity.
ex) SARS (2009) originated in China and moved to Canada shortly after. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
when a viral epidemic becomes global.
Ex) H1N1 (2009) originated in mexico and usa and moved to 207 countries in less than a year.
1918-1919 Spanish Flu killed roughly 40 million people. |
|
|
Term
| Where do viruses Come from (3) |
|
Definition
1. mutation of existing viruses (usually high rate of mutation in viruses due to errors in RNA relication)
2. viral diseases in a small isolated population can emerge and spread
3. new viral diseases can emerge when viruses spread from animals to humans (viral strains that jump species can exchange genetic information with other viruses to which humans have no immunity) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
source-bats, fruit
epidemic
no vaccine |
|
|
Term
| More than 2000 types of viral diseases of plants are known and they cause: |
|
Definition
spots on leaves and fruit, stunted growth and damaged leaves or roots.
most plant viruses have a RNA genome |
|
|
Term
| Plant viruses spread disease in 2 ways: |
|
Definition
| horizontal and vertical transmission |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| entering through damaged cell walls |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inheriting the virus from a parent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| are small circular RNA molecules that infect plants and disrupt their growth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
are slow-acting, virtually indestructible infectious proteins that cause brain disease in mammals.
Ex) mad cow disease and creutzfeldt-jakob disease in humans.
Propagate by converting normal proteins into the prion version |
|
|
Term
| Prokaryotes are the most abundant organisms on Earth. A contributing factor to this is: |
|
Definition
| their ability to adapt to a broad range of habitats |
|
|
Term
| Size of prokayotes vs. eukaryotes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 Most common Shapes of Prokaryote Cells |
|
Definition
| spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli) and spirals |
|
|
Term
| Cells walls of prokaryotic cells |
|
Definition
maintain cell shape.
protect the cell.
prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in bacterial cell walls. A network of sugar polymers cross-linked by polypeptides. |
|
|
Term
| Eukaryotic cell walls are made of |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Archaean cell walls contain |
|
Definition
| polysaccharides and proteins but lack peptidoglycan |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| used to classify bacteria by cell wall composition |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bacteria have simpler walls with a large amount of peptidoglycan |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bacteria have less peptidoglycan and an outer membrane that can be toxic. More likely to be antibiotic resistance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| target peptidoglycan and damage bacterial cell walls |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| polysaccharide or protein layer that covers many prokaryotes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| allows some prokaryotes to stick to their substrate or other individuals in a colony. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| longer than fimbriae and allow prokaryotes to exchange DNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ability to move toward or away from a stimulus. roughly half of all bacteria. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the movement toward or away from a chemical stimulus.
+ = towards nutrients
- = away from toxic substances |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| propel motile bacteria. scattered about the surface or concentrated at one or both ends. |
|
|
Term
| Some prokaryotes have specialized membranes that perform metabolic functions. What are these? |
|
Definition
| These are usually infoldings of the plasma membrane |
|
|
Term
| Do prokaryotes or eukaryotes have less DNA in their genome? |
|
Definition
| prokaryotes. Most of the genome consists of a circular chromosome. The chromosome is not surrounded by a membrane and is located in the nucleoid region. |
|
|
Term
| 3 Key features of prokaryotic reproduction |
|
Definition
1. they are small
2. they reproduce by binary fission
3. they have short generation times |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| smaller rings of DNA in some bacteria |
|
|
Term
| How often can prokaryotes divide? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 steps of binary fission |
|
Definition
1. replication begins
2. replication continues
3. replication finishes |
|
|
Term
| Metabolically inactive and is formed by many prokaryotes |
|
Definition
| endospores. which can remain viable in harsh conditions for centuries. |
|
|
Term
| Their short generation time allows prokaryotes to evolve quickly. In a lab, in 8 years scientists went through ___ generations |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 Factors that contribute to genetic diversity |
|
Definition
1. rapid reproduction
2. mutation
3. genetic recombination |
|
|
Term
| Mutation rates during binary fission are ___, but because of rapid reproduction, mutations can accumulate rapidly in a population |
|
Definition
| low. high diversity from mutations allows for rapid evolution. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the combining of DNA from two sources. Contributes to diversity. |
|
|
Term
| DNA from different individuals can be brought together by (3) |
|
Definition
| transformation, transduction, and conjugation |
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Term
|
Definition
| prokaryotic cell can take up and incorporate foreign DNA from the surrounding environment |
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Term
|
Definition
| movement of genes between bacteria by bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) |
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Term
|
Definition
| transfer of genetic material between 2 prokaryotic cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| a piece of DNA is required for the production of pili (f for fertility). May exist as a plasmid or as a segment of DNA in a bacterial chromosome.n |
|
|
Term
| Cells containing the F plasmid: |
|
Definition
| function as DNA donors during conjugation |
|
|
Term
| Cells without the F factor: |
|
Definition
| function as DNA recipients during conjugation |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| carries genes for antibiotic resistance genes. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| kill sensitive bacteria, but not bacteria with specific R plasmids. |
|
|
Term
| Prokaryotes obtain energy and Carbon: Phototrophs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Prokaryotes obtain energy and Carbon: chemotrophs |
|
Definition
| obtain energy from chemicals |
|
|
Term
| Prokaryotes obtain energy and Carbon: autotrophs |
|
Definition
| require carbon dioxide as a carbon source |
|
|
Term
| Prokaryotes obtain energy and Carbon: heterotrophs |
|
Definition
| require an organic nutrient to make organic compounds |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Energy Source: light
Carbon Source: CO2, HCO3-, or related compound.
photosynthetic prokaryotes (ex. cyanobacteria); plants; certain protists (ex. algae) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Energy Source: inorganic chemicals (such as H2S, NH3, or FE2+)
Carbon Source:CO2, HCO3-, or related compound
unique to certain prokaryotes ex. sulfolobus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Energy Source: light
Carbon Source: organic compounds
unique to certain aquatic and salt-loving prokayotes ex. rhodobacter, chloroflexus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Energy Source:organic compounds
Carbon Source: organic compounds
many prokaryotes (ex. clostridium) and protists; fungi; animals; some plants. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| require oxygen for cellular respiration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| are poisoned by oxygen and use fermentation or anaerobic respiration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| can survive with or without oxygen |
|
|
Term
| What element is required for the production of amino acids and nucleic acids |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| some prokaryotes convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| photosynthetic cells and nitrogen-fixing cells. exchange metabolic products in cyanobacterium Anabaena |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| shape, motility, nutritional mode traditionally used to classify prokaryotes. Do not reveal evolutionary history. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| led to many advances in our understanding of prokaryote phylogenetics. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| archaea that live in extreme environments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
life in highly saline environments
ex)great salt lake (utah) has a salt concentration of 32%. The pink colour is from halophiles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
live in very hot environments such as volcanic hot springs or deep sea hydrothermal vents.
-dna and proteins are adapted to withstand hot temperatures |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| archaea that release methane as a by-product of their metabolism. Obligate Anaerobes (poisoned by O2). Found under ice, in swamps, in marshes and in the guts of herbivores |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| new clade with representatives from hot springs in yellowstone national park |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| methanogens and many extreme halophiles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tiny organisms from hydrothermal vents in iceland |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| many harmful, many helpful. diverse nutritional and metabolic capabilities |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gram-negative bacteria with a range of metabolic and nutritional modes. 5 subgroups: Alpha, Beta, Gramma, Delta, Epsilon. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| gram-negative parasites that can only survive within animal cells. Most common STD in USA. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| helical heterotrophs that move by "spiraling". Some free-living, some parasites |
|
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Term
|
Definition
photoautotrophs that use photosynthesis to produce energy and oxygen as a by-product. Solitary and filamentous (colonies).
Some have specialized cells for nitrogen fixation (heterocysts). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
rival the proteobacteria in diversity. Includes parasites, soil-decomposers and sources of antibiotics.
ex) streptomyces |
|
|
Term
| Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes |
|
Definition
function as decomposers, breaking down dead organisms and waste products.
Some prokaryotes can increase the availability of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for plant growth. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| such as cyanobacteria produce atmospheric oxygen. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| 2 species living in close contact |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
both species benefit
ex) bioluminescent bacteria
-fish uses light to attract prey and mates while the bacteria recieves nutrients from the fish. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Chemoautotrophic bacteria provide the energy that supports the entire community (in the lack of sunlight).
Bacteria get energy from compounds released from the vent. |
|
|
Term
| Mutualistic Bacteria (in humans) |
|
Definition
| Human intestines host an estimated 500-1000 species of bacteria. Help to process food. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
parasites that cause disease.
All bacteria, no archaea. |
|
|
Term
| Pathogenic Bacteria in Humans |
|
Definition
cause about half of all human disease some are transmitted from other species
ex) lyme disease cause illness by producing poisons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
proteins secreted by certain bacteria and other organisms. Can produce disease symptoms even if the bacteria are not present
ex)clostridium botulinum- botulism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| components of the outer membrane are gram-negative bacteria. Released only when the bacteria die and their cell wall breaks down. ex)salmonella- food poisoning |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Pathogenic bacteria can be used in bioterrorism. For example: Bacillus Anthracis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| has greatly reduced the threat of pathogenic bacteria |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| have reduced the incident of disease, but antibiotic resistant bacteria are becoming an issue due to the rapid evolution of bacterial strains. |
|
|
Term
| Benefits from metabolic capabilities of bacteria and archaea: Food |
|
Definition
| bacteria convert milk to yogurt and cheese |
|
|
Term
| Benefits from metabolic capabilities of bacteria and archaea: Biotechnology |
|
Definition
| gene cloning and transgenic plants |
|
|
Term
| Benefits from metabolic capabilities of bacteria and archaea: Industry |
|
Definition
| bacteria can be used to make plastics |
|
|
Term
| Benefits from metabolic capabilities of bacteria and archaea: Bioremediation |
|
Definition
| anaerobic prokaryotes decompose sewage and metabolize oil from spills |
|
|
Term
| Benefits from metabolic capabilities of bacteria and archaea: Genetic Engineering |
|
Definition
| bacteria can produce vitamins, antibiotics, hormones, etc. |
|
|
Term
| Biotechnologically and Prokaryotes |
|
Definition
DNA cloning
applications of biotechnology |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gene cloning involves using bacteria to make multiple copies of a gene. Foreign DNA is inserted into a plasmid and the recombinant plasmid is inserted into a bacterial cell. The bacterial cell reproduces, effectively cloning the plasmid with the foreign DNA, producing multiple copies of a single gene |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. gene inserted into plasmid
2. plasmid put into bacterial cell
3. host cell grown in culture to form a clone of cells containing the "cloned" gene of interest
4. basic research of various applications |
|
|
Term
| What does gene cloning rely on to cut out DNA molecules? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cut out DNA molecules at specific DNA sequences called restriction sites. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| site where restriction enzymes cut DNA molecules at specific DNA sequences. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| what is yielded when DNA molecules are cut by restriction enzymes and restriction sites. |
|
|
Term
| The most useful restriction enzyme cuts DNA in a staggered way producing ______. |
|
Definition
| fragments with "sticky ends" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. restriction enzyme cuts sugar-phosphate backbones
2. DNA fragments added from another molecule cut by some enzyme. base pairing occurs.
3. DNA ligase seals strands |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| used to modify the metabolism of microorganisms |
|
|
Term
| Genetic Engineering: Bacteria |
|
Definition
| some bacteria can be used to extract minerals from the environment or degrade potentially toxic wast materials |
|
|
Term
| Genetic Engineering: Transgenic Animals |
|
Definition
speeds up the selective breeding process.
beneficial genes can be transferred between varieties or species. Being used to improve agriculture productivity and food quality. Crops and animals selected with genes for desirable traits |
|
|
Term
| Genetic Engineering: plant genes used (4) |
|
Definition
herbicide resistance
increased resistance to pests
increased resistance to salinity
improved nutritional value |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| diverse organisms that do not fit elsewhere in the traditional 5 kingdoms of life. Are polyphyletic and there are many kingdoms of protists. Many are unicellular, some form colonies, and some are multicellular. Very complex. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process in which unicellular organisms engulf other cells becoming endosymbionts and later organelles. |
|
|
Term
| Endosymbiosis of an aerobic prokaryote |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| endosymbiosis of a photosynthetic cyanobacterium |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| evolved from the plastid-bering linage of protists DNA of platid genes closely resemble the DNA of oyanobacteria. |
|
|
Term
| 5 Super Groups of Protists |
|
Definition
| Excavata, Chromalveolata, Rhizaria, Archaeplastida, Unikonta |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Characterized by it's cytoskeleton. Some have "excavated" feeding groove. Relationships in the group lack support, but include diplomonads, parabasalids, and euglenozoans. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| excavata. Diardia intestinalis (beaver fever). A parasite that inhabits mammalian intestines. Have 2 nuclei, multiple flagella and modified mitochondria. Derive energy Anaerobically. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| excavata. trichomonas vaginalis (sexually transmitted parasite). Most common pathogenic protist. Have reduced mitochondria. generate some energy anaerobically |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| excavata. spiral or crystalline rod inside their flagella. includes kinetoplastids and euglenids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| excavata-euglenozoan. trypanosoma (sleeping sickness). fatal neurological disease. single mitochondrion with organized mass of DNA. Surface proteins frequently change to confuse the host's immune system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| excavata- euglenozoans. euglena genus. possible biofuel. 1 or 2 flagella that emerge from a pocket at one end of the cell. some mixotrophic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| large, extremely diverse clade. evidence monophyletic group. originated through endosymbiosis of a photosynthetic red algae. includes alveolates and stramenopiles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromalveolata. have membrane-bound sacs (alveoli) just under the plasma membrane. Include dinoflagellates, apicomplexans and ciliates |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromalveolata- alveolata. pflesteria (red tide). Toxins kill massive numbers of marine life. Cells have cellulose plates; flagella lie in grooves and make cells spin. important photosynthetic producers (some heterotrophs) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromalveolata- alveolata. plasmodium (malaria). extremely serious parasite. spread through their host as infectious cells called sporozoites, specialized for penetrating host cells and tissues. sexual and asexual stages that require 2 or more different host species for completion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| infectious cell that is specialized for penetrating host cells and tissues. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromalveolata- alveolata. paramecium. large group of easily recognizable protists. use cilia to move and feed; have micronuclei and macronuclei. Reproduce by conjugate binary fission |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromalveolata. Flagellum has numerous fine hair-like structures, often have a smooth flagellum as well. Diatoms, golden algae, brown algae, oomycetes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromalveolata- stramenopiles. high photosynthetic activity impacts global carbon dioxide levels--> CO2 is trapped in the bodies of diatoms. Unicellular algae with a glass-like wall made of silica, extremely strong. Major component of phytoplankton |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
chromalveolata- stramenopiles. important components of freshwater and marine plankton and "seaweeds"; many human uses.
Larger brown algae have features that are analogous to land plants. Photosynthetic and some are mixotrophic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromalveolata- stamenopiles. phytophthora infestans (potato blight). caused irish famine (1mill died) and continues to cause crop losses around the world. once considered fungal based on morphology (hyphae, etc.) most are decomposers or parasites. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proposed based on molecular systematics. many move and feed with threadlike pseudopodia=false feet. include radiolarians, forams and cercozoans. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| supergroup that includes red and green algae and land plants. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Archaeplastida. porphyra (nori). Edible, used in sushi. Reddish colour due to an accessory pigment called phycoerythrin. usually multicelluar; largest are "seaweeds" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Archaeplastida. named for grass-green chloroplasts. paraphyletic group with two main groups: chlorophytes, charophyceans |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Archaeplastida- green algae. found in various habitats and include:
simple unicellular species ex) chlamydomonas
colonial species ex) volvox
true multicellular species ex)ulva |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Archaeplastida- Green Algae. Are most closely related to land plants. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| includes animals, fungi, and some protists. Includes amoebozoans and opisthokonts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| unikonta. amoevas that have lobe- or tube-shapped, rather than threadlike, pseudopodia. Include slime molds, gymnamoebas (common in soil and water) and entamoebas |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Unikonta. Entamoeba histolytica (amebic dysentery). Third leading cause of human death due to eukaryotic parasites. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Unikonta. extremely diverse and include animals, fungi, and several groups of protists. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
many protists from symbiotic associations with other species.
ex) coral reefs, wood-digesting protists in termite guts, parasites (malaria) etc. |
|
|
Term
___% of the worlds photosynthesis is produced by aquatic protists.
___% from photosynthetic prokaryotes, ___% from land plants. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| emergent virus that causes neurological birth disorders. Currently spread to 25 countries after reported in Brazil in May 2015. |
|
|
Term
| How do Fungi obtain nutrients? |
|
Definition
Absorb nutrients from the environment. Do this by secreting powerful enzymes into their surroundings. These enzymes break complex molecules into smaller organic compounds that the fungi absorb and use.
Some use enzymes to penetrate the walls of other cells and absorb nutrients from the host. May be decomposers, parasites, or mutualists. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| often inhabit moist environments, including plant sap and animal tissue. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Multicellular filaments and Single Cells.
Some grow as multicellular filaments and yeasts and more species grow only as filaments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tiny filaments with tubular cell walls. make up multicellular fungi. |
|
|
Term
| Fungal cell walls contain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| networks adapted for absorption. Hyphae interwoven into mats. Have a high surface area to volume ratio (1cm3) of soil can have as much as 1km of hyphae. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| divide hyphae into cells in most fungi. have pores that allow cell to cell movement of organelles. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lack septa and have continuous cytoplasmic mass with hundred or thousands of nuclei. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| specialized structures for penetrating host cells (specialized hyphae used to extract nutrients from other cells) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots. deliver phosphate ions and minerals to plants. most vascular plants have these. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| form sheaths of hyphae over a root and also grow into the extracellular spaces of the root cortex. |
|
|
Term
| Arbuscular Mycorrizal Fungi |
|
Definition
| extended hypae through the cell walls of root cells and from arbuscles inside the root cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| formed by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi inside root cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| produce huge amounts of spores asexually or sexually. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| unicellular amoeba-like protists that feed on algae and bacteria. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fungi are more closely related to animals than any other eukaryote. Fungal diversity is hypothesized to have happened early in the colonization of land. The earliest known vascular plants contain mycorrhizal fungi (420mya) |
|
|
Term
| Fossils of fungi date back to ____. But the linage is suggested to split from animals ____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Chytrids
Zygomycetes
Glomeromycetes
Ascomycetes
Basidiomycetes |
|
|
Term
| Chytridiomycota (Chytrids) |
|
Definition
| flagellated spores. live in lakes and soil. exist as colonies or single cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| zygote fungi. resistant zygosporangum as sexual stage. Includes molds, parasites, commensal symbionts. Have coenocytic hyphae. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. form relationships with plants: about 90% of all plant species have relationships with mycorrhizae |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ascomycetes or sac fungi. sexual spores (ascaspores) borne internally in sacs called asci; vast number of asexual spores (conidia) produced. Live in various environments and vary in size and complexity. important decomposers |
|
|
Term
| Penicillium (over 300 species) |
|
Definition
| named for brush appearance of fruiting bodies. source of major antibiotics. found in blue cheese and other cheeses |
|
|
Term
| Grosmannia clavigera (blue stain fungi) |
|
Definition
| mountain pine beetle transfers fungi to pine wood; tree dies wood discoloured. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| club fungi. Elaborate fruiting body (basidiocarp) containing many basidia that produce sexual spores (basidospores). Includes mushrooms, puffballs, shelf fungi, parasites and mutualists.Best fungi at decomposing lignin in wood |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| birds nest fungi. eggs contain spores; are splashed out of the nest by rainwater. obtain nutrients by decomposing organic matter |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| symbiotic association between a photosynthetic microorganism and a fungus. Fungus provides a safe place to live and provides water and minerals. Algae provides carbon compounds, fix nitrogen. Photosynthetic component is green algae or cyanobacteria. Fungal component is most often an ascomycete. |
|
|
Term
| 4 Traits shared by land plants and Charophytes |
|
Definition
1. rings of cellulose-synthesizing proteins: in the plasma membrane (other algae have linear sets of proteins)
2. Peroxisome Enzymes: help min the loss of organic products during respiration
3. Structure of flagellated sperm
4. the formation of a phragmoplast: shared by land plants and some charophytes. The phragmoplast is a group of microtubules that forms during cell division. |
|
|
Term
| 4 Key traits that evolved in land plants |
|
Definition
1. alteration of generations
2. walled spores in sporangia
3. multicellular gametangia
4. apical meristems |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| multicellular dependent embryo develops within the female gametophyte |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| are reproductive cells that can develop into a new haploid organism without fusing with another cell. Produce gametophytes by mitosis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| multicellular diploid (2n) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| makes spores tough and resistant to desication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gametes are produced within |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| regions of cell division at the tips of roots and shoots. plant elongation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| waxy epidermus that prevents drying |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| provide defences against herbivores and parasites |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| origin of vascular plants |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| origin of extant seed plants |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nonvascular seedless plants. haploid gametophytes are larger and longer-living than sporophytes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one-cell thick filaments that emerge from germinating spores |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| flagellated and require water for dispersal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| long, tubular single cells that act as anchors (but they lack conducting tissue) |
|
|
Term
| Sporophyte structure: foot |
|
Definition
| absorbs nutrients from the gametophyte |
|
|
Term
| Sporophyte structure: seta |
|
Definition
| stalk conducts materials to sporanguim |
|
|
Term
| Sporophyte structure: capsule |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Sporophyte structure: peristome |
|
Definition
| interlocking ring structure that controls release of spores |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| may be thalloid or leaft, no stomata, 9000 species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sporophytes have stomata, many mosses are highly desiccation tolerant, can reproduce asexually by specialized structures or by fragmentation, 15000 species can also tolerate freezing. |
|
|
Term
| 3 ways that mosses are ecologically and economically important |
|
Definition
| colonizers of terrestrial landscapes. some harber nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria form seed beds, habitats |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| form large regions of partically decayed organic matter (peat) (lots of hallow dead cells create an acidic environment) bogs and peatlands cover 3% of the Earth's land surface. Harvested as a fuel source. Contain roughly 30% of the worlds soil carbon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| have a long tapered sporophyte that only consists of a sporangium. contain stomata. 100 species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| prevelent vegetation during the first 100 million years of planet evolution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| began to diversify during the Devonian and Carboniferous periods |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| allowed these plants to grow tall |
|
|
Term
| Vascular Plants are characterized by (3) |
|
Definition
| life cycles with dominant sporophytes. Vascular tissue called xylem and phloem. well developed roots and leaves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| have flagellated sperm and are usually restricted to moist environments. Spores are contained in sporangia clustered into sori |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| clusters of sporangia that contain spores |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| most seedless vascular plants are homosporous producing one type of spore that develops into either male or female gametophyte |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| all seed plants and some vascular plants |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts.various forms. 1200 species. |
|
|
Term
| Selaginella moellendorffii |
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| strobili-Diphasiastrum tristachyum |
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| ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns. most wide spread seedless vascular plants. more closely related to seed plants than lycophytes. 12000 species. |
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| Seedless vascular plants in the: Carboniferous period |
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| seedless vascular plants were critical in shaping the atmosphere - reduced CO2 levels. Contributed to most extensive coal deposits ever formed. |
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| are hypotheses. show "pattern of descent" Branch points represent the divergence of evolutionary lineages from a common ancestor. |
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| 5 Derived traits of seed plants |
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1. reduced gametophyte: gain nourishment form the sporophyte
2. heterospory: produce two kinds of spores
3. ovules: retain the megasporangium within the parent sporophyte
4. pollen:
5. seeds |
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| produce megaspores that give rise to female gametophytes- eggs |
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| produce microspores that give rise to male gametophytes- sperm |
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| sporophyte tissue that protects the megasporangium |
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| A pollen grain consists of male gametophyte enclosed within the pollen wall, which protects the gametophyte. Pollen grains can be carried long distances by wind or animals. sperm disperal not relient on water |
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| transfer of pollen to part of the plant containing the ovules. Pollen tube discharges sperm into the female gametophyte |
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| after sperm fertilizes an egg, the zygote develops into an embryo. The whole ovule becomes the seed, including a food supply and seed coat |
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| Seeds provide three advantages over spores: |
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| multicellular, the embryo protected by seed coat. can remain dormant for long periods of time. Have a supply of stored food |
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| earliest fossils about 305 mya (carboniferous period). Dominated the landscape throughout much of the mesozoic era. Many were adapted to arid conditions due to needle shaped leaves |
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| pollen is produced in large amounts and dispersal is wind mediated. scales of cones separate to release seeds and this dispersal is also wind mediated. process can take almost 3 years from gametophyte production to mature seeds |
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| cycadophyta, ginkgophyta, gnetophyta, coniferophyta |
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| large cones, palmlike leaves, 13o species today |
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| fleshy seeds, deciduous fanlike leaves, only 1 extant species |
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| 3 genera, diverse forms, roughly 75 species. |
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| 600 species. some conifers are very large and most are evergreens |
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| Douglas Fir. provide more timber than any other tree species |
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| seeds are contained in mature ovaries (fruit). Only one phylum= anthophyta. 90% of all plant species |
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| structures specialized for sexual reproduction. Male= stamen (anther and filament) Female= carpel (stigma, style, ovary) |
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| mature ovary. Thickened ovary wall protects the seed and aids in dispersal. Fleshy fruits, dry fruits |
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| Lily Life Cycle: Cross Pollination can be assisted by stamen and carpals that: |
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| mature at different times |
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| Double Fertilization: Lily life cycle |
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Definition
| 2 sperm cells are deposited into the female gametophyte. One fertilizes the egg and forms a diploid zygote. This develops into a sporophyte embryo, with a rudimentary root and 1-2 cotelydons (seed leaves). The second fuses with 2 nuclei in the female gametophyte forming a triploid cell. This becomes the endosperm (nourishes the developing embryo) |
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| originated at least 140mya. Began to dominate terrestrial ecosystems by the mid-Cretaceous period. |
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| Anthophyta is separated into 4 lineages: |
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| basal angiosperm, magnoliids, monocots, eudicots |
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| 3 lineages: water lily, amborella trichopoda, star anise |
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| woody and herbaceous. Floral organs are arranged in a spiral. 8000 species ex) southern magnolia |
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one cotelydon, fibrous root system, parallel veins, pollen grain with one opening, vascular tissue scattered, florets usually in multiple of three. 70000species
ex) lily, wheat |
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| 2 cotyledons, taproot, netlike veins, pollen grain with 3 openings, vascular tissue arranged in ring, floral organs in multiples of 4 or 5. 170000 species. ex)wild rose, snow pea, pyrenean oak |
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| Angiosperm and Animals: Coevolution |
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Definition
| herbivores reduce a plants reproductive success, plants that are able to defend against herbivores may be favored by natural selection. In turn this may influence the evolution of the herbivore. |
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| Coevolution: plant pollinator interactions can also alter rates of speciation |
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| Gene flow is reduced if pollinators are restricted to flowers of the same species. |
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| most of our food comes from angiosperms. 6 crops make up 80% of the calories humans consume(maize/corn, wheat, potatoes, cassava, and sweet potatoes) Most modern crops are the product of artificial selection |
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| wood is only found in seed plants. the primary source of fuel for much of the world. furniture, paper, homes, etc. |
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| ingredients of plants are found in 25% of prescription drugs in the united states. Plant secondary compounds have been extracted and synthesized |
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| Willowbark->salicin->acetylsalicylic acid |
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| Threats to plant diversity |
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| humans are having a detrimental effect on plant populations around the world due to population expansion and use of natural resources. |
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| 3 Organs Essential for plant Growth |
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1. roots
2. stems
3. leaves |
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| 3 main functions of roots |
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1. anchor plants in the soil
2. absorb minerals and water
3. store carbohydrates |
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| monocots. generally adapted to shallow soils |
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| main vertical root that develops from an embryonic root |
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| thin tubular extensions of root epidermal cells that greatly increase root surface area. |
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| Some roots are adapted for specialized functions: |
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storage roots
proproots
buttressroots
pneumatophores(breathing)
strangling serial roots |
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| 2 main functions of stems |
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Definition
1. lift and separate leaves for sun exposure
2. lift reproductive structures to facilitate dispersal of pollen and fruit |
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| stem segments between leaves |
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| forms a lateral shoot or branch |
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| located at the shoot tip and causes elongation (apical dominance)` |
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| Stems adapted for specialized functions |
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| rhizomes, bulbs, stolons, tubers |
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| stalk that joins the leaf to the stem |
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| the vascular tissue of leaves |
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| Leaves adapted for specialized functions |
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| tendrils, spines, storage leaves, reproductive leaves, bracts |
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| the outer protective coating of a plant |
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| single protective tissue layer in non-woody plants.dermal |
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| Dermal. protective tissue in woody plants |
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| Dermal. waxy coating on leaves and stems and helps prevent water loss |
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| hair-like out growths of shoot epidermus that can reduce water loss, reflect light, provide defense. |
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| carries out the transport of materials between roots and shoots |
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| vascular. conducts water and dissolved minerals up from the roots to the shoots |
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| vascular. transports sugars (from photosynthesis) from where they are made (generally leaves) to where they are needed -> roots and sites of growth |
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| all vascular tissue together |
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| includes all tissue that are neither dermal or vascular |
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| ground tissue internal to the vascular tissue |
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| ground tissue external to the vascular tissue |
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| 5 major types of plant cells |
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1. parenchyma cells
2. collenchyma cells
3. sclerenchyma cells
4. cells that make up xylem
5. cells that make up phloem |
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| performs most of the metabolic processes of the plant chloroplasts within. synthesis and storage of organic products. Ex) Elodea leaf |
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| help support young parts of the plant shoot. provide flexiable support without restraining growth. Cells elongate as the plant grows. Ex: helianthus stem |
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| support the plant, more rigid than collenchyma cell walls are thick, containing large amounts of lignin, cannot elongate. occur in regions that have stopped growing (many cells are dead at maturity) ex) pear, ash tree |
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| made up of 2 types of water-conducting cells: Tracheids and vessel elements. cells are tubular and elongated; dead at functional maturity. water travels through pits and perforated plates |
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| made up of sugar-conducting cells; sieve-tube elements. cells are living but have reduced cellular contents. sugars and organic nutrients travel from cell to cell through sieve plates, while companion cells carry out regular cellular function |
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| pores for gas exchange. surrounded by 2 guard cells |
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| ground tissue. primarily made up of parenchyma cells. |
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| growth occurs throughout a plant's life (not limited to an embryonic or juvenille period) |
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| they stop growing after they reach a certain size (leave and flowers) |
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| perpetually undifferentiated tissues |
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| located at the tips of roots and shoots and in axillary buds. They provide additional cells that grow by elongation (primary growth) this accounts for most/all of the growth in herbaceous plants |
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| responsible for elongation of roots and shoots |
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| include vascular cambium and cork cambium. Cylinders of dividing cells provide growth in circumference (secondary growth) |
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| increases the diameter of stems and roots in woody plants |
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| adds layers of vascular tissue called secondary xylem and secondary phloem |
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| replaces the epidermus with the tougher periderm |
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| Success of plants depends on: |
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| their ability to gather and conserve resources from their environment |
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| Natural Selection has favoured what adaptations of vascular plants? |
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| efficient long distance transport of water, minerals, and the products of photosynthesis |
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| carbon dioxide+water+light->sugar+oxygen+water |
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| leaf size, structure and arrangement facilitate light and carbon dioxide capture for photosynthesis |
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| roots systems are adapted to gather water and mineral resources from the soil and provide anchorage |
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| Substance in plants are transported via 3 pathways: |
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| apoplast, symplast, transmembrane route |
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| consists of everything external to the plasma membranes of living cells (including cell walls, extracellular spaces, dead cells |
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| consists of the entire mass of cytosol of all living cells in a plant and the channels that interconnect them |
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| involves transport over cell walls |
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| What influences water potential |
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| influenced by solute concentration and physical pressure |
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| movement of fluid from high to low pressure. xylem sap is transported from roots to leaves this way |
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| the evaporation of water from a plants surface |
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| Transportation of nutrients: pulling |
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| water exits via stomata, transpired water is replaced as water travels up from the roots |
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| Transportation of nutrients: pushing |
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| at night transpiration is low, root cells continue pumping mineral ions into the xylem of the vascular cylinder, lowering the water potential. Water flows from the root cortex, generating root pressure, sometimes causing more water to enter leaves that is transpired->guttation. |
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| Cohesion Tension Hypothesis |
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| xylem sap is pulled by transpiration, and the cohesion of water molecules transmits this pull the entire length of the plant |
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| Regulation of Transpiration |
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| stomata use guard cells to control the size of the opening and regulate thranspiration |
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| plants adapted to arid environments. Adaptions include reduced leaves, thick cuticles, short life cycles, reflective surfaces, etc. |
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| the flow of water and minerals (from soil to roots to leaves) is largely in a direction opposite to the direction needed for sugar transport |
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| sugars are transported from the mature leaves to areas that require large amounts of sugar for energy and growth |
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| much thicker than xylem sap and moves from sites of sugar production to areas of sugar use or storage |
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| are organs that are net producers of sugar |
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| are organs that are a net consumer or depository of sugar |
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| made up of water (80-90%) |
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| organic substances make up 90% (products of photosynthesis) Inorganic substances only make up 4% |
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| 9 essential elements needed by plants in relatively large amounts. C, O, N, H, P, S, K Ca, Mg |
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plants need them in very small amounts. Cl, Fe, Mn, B, Zn, Cu, Ni, Molybdenum
C4 and cam plants also need sodium |
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| 3 most common deficiencies |
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| nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus |
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| layer of soil bound to the plants roots |
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-decomposition.
-nitrogen fixation.
-produce hormones that stimulate plant growth.
-produce antibiotics that protect roots from disease.
-absorb toxic metals or make nutrients more available to roots |
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| transforms nitrogen and nitrogen-containing compounds to make N useable for plants. Most soil N comes from actions of soil bacteria, often found in nodules |
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| atmospheric N2-> Nitrogen fixing bacteria -> ammonifying bacteria +organic material -> ammonia -> ammonium -> Nitrifying bacteria -> nitrate -> denitrifying bacteria -> atmospheric N2 |
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| mutualistic association of roots and fungi. host plants provide sugar. fungus increases water and mineral uptake |
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| 2 Major Types of Mycorrhizal associations |
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ectomycorrhizae
arbuscular mycorrhizae |
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| the mycelium of the fungus forms a dense sheath over the surface of the root. Hyphae form a network in the apoplast, but do not penetrate the root cells. Occurs in approx. 10% of plant families. |
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| microscopic fungal hyphae extend into the root. these mycorrhizae penetrate the cell wall but not the plasma membrane to form branched arbuscules within root cells. Occurs in approx. 85% of plant families. |
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| 3 unusual adaptations of plants of getting nutrition |
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| epiphytes, parasitic plants, carnivorous plants |
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| grows on another plant and obtains water and minerals from rain. ex) staghorn fern Demo) tillandsia "airplant" |
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| absorb sugars and minerals from their living host plant ex)mistletoe(P), dodder(NP), indian pine (NP of mycorrhizae) |
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| photosynthetic but obtain nitrogen by killing and digesting mostly insects. ex) sundews, pitcher plants, venus flytrap |
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