Term
|
Definition
| substance that reacts to other substances invading the body (antigens) |
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Term
|
Definition
| substance invading the body that stimulates the production of antibodies |
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Term
|
Definition
| lab method using electric current to separate proteins, allowing determination of genotype |
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Term
|
Definition
| human leukocyte antigen system, diverse genetic system consisting of linked loci on chromosome 6 that control autoimmune response |
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|
Term
| restriction fragment length polymorphism |
|
Definition
| RFLP, genetic trait defined in terms of length of DNA fragments produced when certain enzymes cut DNA sequence |
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Term
|
Definition
| repeated short sequence of DNA, number of repeats is highly variable |
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Term
|
Definition
| sequence of DNA repeated at different locations on different chromosomes |
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|
Term
| single nucleotide polymorphisms |
|
Definition
| SNPs, specific positions in DNA sequence that differ at one base |
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Term
|
Definition
| combination of gene/DNA sequences that are inherited as a single unit |
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Term
|
Definition
| set of related haplotypes that share similar mutations |
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Term
|
Definition
| measurements of human body, skull, face |
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Term
|
Definition
| measurements of teeth size |
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Term
|
Definition
| measurements of finger/palm prints, including type classification and ridge counts |
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Term
|
Definition
| as applied to humans, vague term that has multiple meanings, both cultural and biological, referring to group membership |
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Term
|
Definition
| group of populations sharing certain biological traits that distinguish them from other groups of populations, difficult to apply to human populations |
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Term
|
Definition
| average measure of relatedness between populations based on a number of traits |
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Term
|
Definition
| graphic representation that shows the genetic relationships between populations, based on genetic distance measures |
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Term
|
Definition
| model that predicts that the genetic distance between populations will increase as the geographic distance between them increases |
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Term
|
Definition
| genetic disease that occurs in a person homozygous for the sickle cell allele, alters RBC structure |
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Term
|
Definition
| disease caused by introduction of an organic foreign substance into the body |
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Term
|
Definition
| disease cause by factors other than the introduction of an organic foreign substance into the body |
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Term
|
Definition
| form of farming in which only simple hand tools are used |
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Term
|
Definition
| ability to produce the enzyme lactase after 5 years of age |
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Term
|
Definition
| condition characterized by diarrhea, cramps and other intestinal problems resulting from ingestion of milk |
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Term
|
Definition
| any factor that interferes with the normal limits of operation of an organism |
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Term
|
Definition
| physiological sense, the maintenance of normal limits of body functioning |
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Term
|
Definition
| short-term physiologic responses to a stress, usually within minutes/hours |
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Term
|
Definition
| long-term physiologic responses to a stress, usually taking days/months |
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|
Term
| developmental acclimatization |
|
Definition
| changes in organ/body structure that occur during the physical growth of any organism |
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Term
|
Definition
| ability of an organism to respond physiologically/developmentally to environmental stress |
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Term
|
Definition
| narrowing of blood vessels to reduce blood flow/heat loss |
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Term
|
Definition
| opening of blood vessels to increase blood flow/heat loss |
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Term
|
Definition
| among mammals of similar shape, larger mammal loses heat less rapidly than smaller mammal, among mammals of similar size, mammal with linear shape loses heat more rapidly than mammal with nonlinear shape |
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Term
|
Definition
| mammals in cold climates have short, bulkier limbs, allowing less loss of body heat, mammals in hot climates have long, slender limbs, allowing greater loss of body heat |
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Term
|
Definition
| measure of cranial shape, defined as maximum width of skull divided by maximum length of skull |
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Term
|
Definition
| measure of shape of nasal opening, defined as width of nasal opening divided by height |
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Term
|
Definition
| oxygen starvation, occurs frequently at high altitudes |
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Term
|
Definition
| poor nutrition, from either too much/too little food or improper balance of nutrients |
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|
Term
| protein-calorie malnutrition |
|
Definition
| group of nutritional diseases resulting from inadequate amounts of proteins and/or calories |
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Term
|
Definition
| extreme form of protein calorie malnutrition resulting from a severe deficiency in proteins but not calories |
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Term
|
Definition
| extreme form of protein-calorie malnutrition resulting from severe deficiencies in both proteins and calories |
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Term
|
Definition
| settled in one place throughout most/all of year |
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Term
|
Definition
| study of human skeletal remains from archaeological sites, used to provide information on health/lifestyle of prehistoric people |
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Term
|
Definition
| maximum population size capable of being supported in a given environment |
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Term
|
Definition
| number of births minus number of deaths |
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Term
|
Definition
| measure of average length of life for newborn child |
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Term
|
Definition
| compilation of age distribution of a population that provides an estimate of the probability that an individual will die by a certain age, used to compute life expectancy |
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Term
|
Definition
| disease transmitted directly to humans from other animals |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| pattern of disease rate when new cases of a disease spread rapidly through a population |
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Term
|
Definition
| pattern of disease rate when new cases of a disease occur at a relatively constant blow low rate over time |
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Term
|
Definition
large, state-level society characterized by large population size, high population density, urbanization, social stratification, food and labor surpluses, monumental architecture and record keeping
- 6000 years ago |
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Term
|
Definition
| widespread epidemic that affects a large geographic area, such as a continent |
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Term
|
Definition
| increase in life expectancy and the shift from infectious to noninfectious disease as the primary cause of death |
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Term
|
Definition
| change in the average pattern of growth of development in population over several generations |
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Term
|
Definition
| age at which a female experiences her first menstrual period |
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|
Term
| emergent infectious disease |
|
Definition
newly identified infectious disease that has recently evolved
- Ebola (Zaire), Legionnaire's disease, Hantavirus, HIV, Korean hemorrhagic fever
- evolution of microorganisms: land conversion allows contact with humans, pollution increases mutation rate, quick travel increases area/time of spread, air conditioning as new environment for microorganisms |
|
|
Term
| reemergent infectious disease |
|
Definition
infectious disease that had previously been reduced but that increases in frequency when microorganisms evolve resistance to antibiotics
- TB: respiratory disease, acquired antibiotic resistance in NY
- due to indiscriminate use of antibiotics, in animal feed |
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Term
| demographic transition theory |
|
Definition
| model of demographic change stating that as a population becomes economically developed, reduction in death rates (leading to population growth) will take place, followed by a reduction in birth rates |
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Term
|
Definition
| the number of males and females in different age groups of a population |
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Term
|
Definition
| diagram of the age-sex structure of a population |
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Term
|
Definition
| children dependent longer but weaned earlier |
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Term
|
Definition
- bipedal
- large heavy brain
- culture
- complex behavior |
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Term
|
Definition
- extended brain development period: acquire technical/cognitive and social/sexual/play skills
- unique growth pattern: childhood, adolescence, menopause (unsure of costs/benefits) -> developed in Homo, Aust. grew faster/died earlier |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- life history strategy
- cost: increased obstetric risk
- benefits: outweigh, allow complex behavior/flexibility (associated with childhood)
- 2nd altriciality: long gestational period, still dependent on nutrients |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- birth-3yrs
- dependent, underdeveloped
- rapid brain growth
- short infancy/short interbirth intervals allow childhood |
|
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Term
|
Definition
- 3-10 yrs
- brain growth
- cognitive/social skills
- advantage: mothers reproduce again before brain growth ends
- cost: still dependent with food/care/emotion
- H. habilis 1st to have, H. erectus had (1.5 mya) -> brains > 850cc require human growth pattern |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- 10-15/12-17 yrs
- rapid growth to maturity (compromise btwn growth/reproduction)
- H. sapiens only
- practice social/sex skills
- advantages: outweigh, extended learning period -> earlier in girls (look mature but infertile), later in boys (look immature but fertile)
- costs: delays reproduction, more effective parenting, 21% increased survival
- social: rites of passage btwn age groups
- physical/social puberty: timing, variation
- Neandertal: didn't have, later reproduction, longer period at risk of dying w/o offspring |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- irreversible cessation of fertility
- before senescence of other systems/death
- unique to humans
- grandmother/mothering/pleiotropic hypotheses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- menopause occurs so grandmothers can care for grandchildren (kin selection)
- prob: doesn't contribute to survival |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - menopause advantageous because selection favors early reproduction, increased maternal investment, stopping reproductive life ensures offspring survival |
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Term
|
Definition
- menopause advantageous because selection for early reproduction
- prob: no benefits |
|
|
Term
| sources of human variation |
|
Definition
- genetic (biological basis)
- biological (reproduction/growth)
- developmental
- environmental (broad)
- populational (between/within, evolutionary processes)
- cultural
- random |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- view that for every entity there is a set of characteristics that all entities of that kind must possess
- "retarding concept"
- stereotyping
- rejected by Darwin |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| - selection of random variations/processes |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| - measure of successful interaction between a population and an environment |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| - individuals with advantageous traits are more reproductively successful |
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Term
|
Definition
| - individual's probability of survival and reproduction, measured in terms of different genotypes for a given locus |
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|
Term
|
Definition
- fundamental quality of life, linked to health
- generic: adjusted to environment (biol/cultural)
- adapt to environment (physical/cultural)
- younger people more adapted |
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|
Term
|
Definition
- genetic: evolutionary, preserve favorable traits
- developmental: growth to maturity
- short-term: reversible
- long-term: lengthy
- seasonal |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| culture + environment + genotype = phenotype |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- continuous trait, no fixed categories
- multiple, complex variation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- biochemical variation
- ABO, MN, Rhesus, Diego, Duffy, Kell
- antigen/antibody reaction, clumping |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- different groups = different antibodies
- implications for disease
- A: more susceptible to smallpox
- B: more susceptible to infantile diarrhea
- O: more susceptible to bubonic plague
- subject to selection, frequencies reflect population history (India more B = lots of smallpox/plague)
- no absolute/better trait |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| measure body/skull/face, most common: height/weight |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- measured with reflectance spectrophotometer
- darker skin absorbs more
- darker = closer to equator, UV protection
- lighter: vit D, folic acid |
|
|
Term
| physiological measurements |
|
Definition
- BP, heart rate
- African-American/Hispanic: higher BP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- 5th century
- classified Mediterranean people by name/place/appearance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- skin color important in the 1700's in Europe
- cephalic index: big brain = superior
- justified slavery |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- 10-14th century conquests in Mesopotamia
- Age of Exploration
- Eurocentric, male-centric, class-centric, Christian view
- based on anatomy (craniology)
- created hierarchy
- "air-brain" phenomenon
- Darwin correct: no human races |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- typological
- hierarchical = racism
- Ashley Montagu
- refers to skin color/nationality/religion/language -> mixture of bio/culture |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- people have all different traits, aren't set categories
- can identify some populations, but not all (epicanthic eye folds = Asian, but dif between African/European?)
- polymorphisms/race don't match, can't say one trait is more important
- Aboriginees?
- complex traits (gene + environment)
- continuous traits, overlap, different classifications (cultures, time) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- more within populations than between populations
- 90% nuclear genetic variation within race, 10% between races
- all populations overlap with single genes, alleles in different frequencies, no one gene can classify |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- 19th century
- misunderstanding, racism
- reflects socioeconomics |
|
|
Term
| physiological adaptations to temperature |
|
Definition
- COLD: core contracts/shell expands, vasoconstriction, more muscle tone, shivering, increased BMR/food intake
- HEAT: core expands/shell contracts, vasodilation, increased sweating, decreased BMR/food intake |
|
|
Term
| biogeographic rules for temperature |
|
Definition
Bergman: body size -> colder = larger
Allen: linearity -> colder = shorter extremities
- surface area/weight: heat loss function of SA and V of structure (passive heat exchange)
- larger: lower SA/Wt, infants high so lose heat easily |
|
|
Term
| effects of solar radiation |
|
Definition
- short-term: burn
- longer-term: cancer (carcinoma, melanoma)
- body temperature, frostbite
- melanin synthesis costly, breaks down folic acid
- advantage: vitamin D synthesis
- sexual selection: females lighter (folic acid needed for pregnancy) |
|
|
Term
| adaptations to high altitude/hypoxia |
|
Definition
- Andes, Tibet, Ethiopia, Leadville
- different effects for newcomers/sojourners/residents |
|
|
Term
| newcomer adaptations to high altitudes |
|
Definition
- nervous system: disorientation
- vision: color impaired
- respiration: increased, hyperventilation
- heart: rapid
- GI: poor fat digestion, flatulence, decreased appetite
- muscles: weak
- reproduction: decreased fecundity
- feeling: weak, nauseous, headache, hyperventilating, lip/nail cyanosis, cramps, diarrhea, disorientation |
|
|
Term
| resident adaptations to high altitudes |
|
Definition
- barrel chest, big lungs
- right heart hypertrophy, pulmonary hypertension
- more capillaries in alveoli |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- began with hunger gatherers, foragers
- 10kya (Pleistocene end): warm climate, glaciers recede
- Neolithic (Europe) -> New Stone Age/ archaic formative: food-producing/agriculture revolution |
|
|
Term
| effects of agricultural revolution |
|
Definition
- used ground stones, hand mills
- changed diet: more environmental control, constant/reliable food source
- allowed permanent settlement: feed more people, wean infants earlier with soft food
- domestication: artificial selection, good for humans/bad for species |
|
|
Term
| risks of agricultural revolution |
|
Definition
- long-term investment
- locusts, avian flu |
|
|
Term
| advantages of agricultural revolution |
|
Definition
- children/adults participate with food
- wean children with cereal, smaller interbirth interval
- organization of labor, concept of property, development of class societies
- more work than hunter gatherers: care for crops/animals |
|
|
Term
| nutrition in the agricultural revolution |
|
Definition
- more dependent on fewer foods, meat rare, more anemia, less variability in food
- nutritional deficiency more than h-g, new diseases, zoonosis
- attract rodents, bubonic plague/TB -> humans
- more infectious diseases, worse dental health (enamel hypoplasia)
- increased fertility/impact varies
- obesity: BMI > 30, cardiovascular problems/diabetes/cancer |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- last continent reached
- how/when very disputed
- came in waves (separate migratory events of different amounts of time)
- multiple waves? from same/dif sources?
- data: archaeological record, linguistics, DNA, dental |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- Bergin land bridge, corridor in glaciation, otherwise underwater
- Beringia: land mass between NE Asia/Alaska during Pleistocene glaciation
- West side: occupation 20-15kya |
|
|
Term
| requirements for crossing Beringia |
|
Definition
- need 50m water drop
- bridge open 75-35kya of/on, 35-11 kya
- need ice-free corridor between Laurentide/Cordilleran ice sheets -> open 25-14 kya, crossed after that thought because poor vegetation before
- Beringia not critical: coastal movement by sea ice/ water (happened earlier - Australia)
- archaeology of Beringia: much underwater/inaccessible, limited modern settlements |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- A, B, C, D, X (rare)
- founding haplotype -> unique mutation -> mutation of daughter haplotype
- founding haplotype disappears |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- Rho
- [(# indivs in center)(0) + (#1 step away)(1) + (#2 steps away)(2) + etc] / (# total indivs) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- mutations accumulate linearly over time (neutral mutations)
- Zuckerman, Pauling |
|
|
Term
| American mtDNA haplotype X |
|
Definition
| - X rarest, in Asia/Europe too -> later migration from Europe? (Soloutrean migration), no proof |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- ancient (Copan)/modern lowland Maya both 25% C
- ancient (Iximche)/modern highland Maya both 0% C (~100% A) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- B rare in Chinchorro/Alto Ramirez
- ranges from 65-100% in modern Aymara
- 2-5% in S. Chile pop (Hulliche, Pehuenche)
- Aymara unlikely descended from Chichorro/Alto Ramirez |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- 4 waves?
- represent ancestral populations in NE Asia that were isolated
- most parsimonious view: single wave with A, B, C, D, X, rapidly filled N/C/S America -> faster than mutational time, last 25,000 years, ancient/modern native Americans have same variation
- alternate view: bottleneck after came to Beringia (decreased variation), followed by rapid expansion (less competition) -> America has all haplogroups |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- few foundre haplotypes
- all 5 part of single founding population between 23-19kya
- Fagundes model: entry before Clovis, route of entry through coast, early sites far south (Monte Verde)
- inland sites older (coastal route) few early sites (underwater now), Clovis -> later adaptation to inland environment with megafauna |
|
|
Term
| bioarchaeology in America |
|
Definition
- 30 individuals (earlier than 8500ya)
- long, narrow skull
- different than modern native Americans -> 2nd wave? selection/adaptation?
- dolycephalic -> brachycephalic
- cranial deformation common |
|
|
Term
| natural selection in human populations |
|
Definition
- CCR5 gene
- codes for proteins on surface to T cells
- unclear role in immunity
- advantages of CCR5delta32: 32 bp deletion, more common in N. Europe, HIV protection -> virus doesn't bond to cells (CCR5 co-receptor), homozygous protection, heterozygous delays progression
- increased frequency not from black death (frequency same during Bronze Age)
- increased frequency result of small pox
- more susceptible to West Nile Virus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- tuberculosis: bone corroded
- treponematosis: syphilis, saber shin (sharp bowing of tibia)
- leprosy: fingers corroded
- dental: damaged teeth/gums/jaw
- fractures: Colles' fracture (in radius, wrist displaced, common in osteoporosis), Parry fracture (in ulna, dislocation from radius) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- caused by agriculture
- resulted in increased dependence on agriculture/population growth
- carrying capacity: h-g populations small, sedentary populations grow
- pop growth depends on fertility/mortality/migration
- no decrease in mortality, based on life expectancy at birth from life table |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- h-g: low (20-40yrs)
- agro: did not improve much, some mortality rates increased/birth rates declined
- Dickson Mound: Native American, h-g life expectancy 26, agro 19
- reduced childhood mortality important factor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- following agro rev, caused population growth
- sedentary life/diet = better ovarian function, shorter breast feeding intervals (breast feeding = contraception)
- food available to infants = earlier weaning, don't have to carry all the time |
|
|
Term
| hunter-gatherers and disease |
|
Definition
- parasite (lice, pinworms)
- zoonoses via bites, wounds, meat (sleeping sickness, tetanus)
- epidemic: few cases, explosion, rapid decline w/ loss of susceptible indivs (rare in h-g)
- endemic: low/constant rate, more common in h-g
- noninfectious: (cancer, heart disease) rare in h-g, balanced diet (low fat/high fiber), lifestyle, bad in droughts, few live long enough to develop
- injury: hunting, burns
- drowning, temperature, childbirth |
|
|
Term
| infectious disease in agro |
|
Definition
- large sedentary pops create epidemics (smallpox, measles, mumps)
- accumulate sewage, increased contact, poor sanitation, contaminated water
- domesticated animals: waste, zoonoses
- land cultivation: insects with diseases (malaria), feces as fertilizer, irrigation spreads disease |
|
|
Term
| nutritional diseases in agro |
|
Definition
- pellagra (niacin deficiency)
- protein deficiency
- crop failure = starvation (Ireland potato famine)
- dental: starch/dirt = cavities, tooth wear |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- large pop, high density
- bad sewage/water
- food stored in homes, brought rats
- bubonic plague (black death): 14th century Europe, fleas spread from country to city rats to humans = pandemic
- 20 million died, spread via ships |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- 250 years ago
- accelerated urban pop growth
- technology betters agriculture
- increased infectious diseases at first, then more noninfectious disease
- reduced morality, increased life expenctancy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- exploration/trade (1500's Europe)
- spread of disease to New World (smallpox, measles, mumps) -> Native Americans, Pacific Islanders, reduced pop in America
- spread Old to New, few domesticated animals in New
- syphilis evolved in both New and Old World separately |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- effects of industrialization on disease, mortality, fertility, pop growth
- reflection of economic status -> more developed countries (MDC) vs. less developed countries (LDC)
- MDC: reduced death/birth rates, more noninfectious disease, slowing of pop growth, older pop
- LDC: reduced morality/fertility, infectious disease, high birth rate, population growth |
|
|
Term
| nature of epidemiologic transition |
|
Definition
- MDC life expectancy at birth increased by 50%
- occurring in MDC, somewhat in LDC
- Omran model: pretransitional pop has high death rates (childhood epidemics), improved cities = less epidemics, death rate declines, birth rate increases, switch to noninfectious disease |
|
|
Term
| increase in life expectancy at birth |
|
Definition
- USA: 1900 -> 47, 2006 -> 78
- 1918 flu only dip, constant increase
- females live longer (80 vs. 75)
- Olhansky: won't surpass 85 bc decline in mortality will slow, others say could reach 90 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- caused increase in life expectancy
- decline in deaths due to infectious disease (esp children)
- degenerative noninfectious disease rates increase (1900 flu/TB/diarrhea leading cause of death, 2006 heart disease, cancer, stroke)
- worldwide: infectious still among leading causes (HIV in Africa) |
|
|
Term
| causes of epidemiologic transition |
|
Definition
- cultural changes: health care, sanitation, water
- medical technology
- cleaner environment: sewage, water treatment
- NYC: before 1860's -> cholera epidemics, epidemic/death decline w/ Health Department establishment, 1920's further decline w/ milk pasteurization/clean water/sanitation |
|
|
Term
| secular change in child growth |
|
Definition
- increase in height
- increase in weight
- decrease in age of sexual maturation
- in industrialized countries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- environmental change, too fast for genetic
- not projected indefinitely into future
- improved nutrition, less childhood infectious disease, health care, smaller families, better standard of living
- nutrition/health care most important |
|
|
Term
| return of infectious disease |
|
Definition
- smallpox/polio/TB eliminated
- new ones appear/old ones resurface |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- world population tripled from 2 billion to 6.7 billion 1900-2008
- death rate declined, lag until birth rate declined = pop growth
- demographic transition: reduced death then reduced fertility
- stage 1: underdeveloped countries, high mortality/fertility, stable pop size
- stage 2: transitional, demographic/econ change, low mortality/high fertility, public health/medicine, quick pop growth
- stage 3: reduced fertility, MDC, better control family size, little growth |
|
|
Term
| problems with demographic transition theory |
|
Definition
- variation in timing of events
- less accurate in predicting time of fertility decline
- econ devel doesn't always precede mortality decline
- trend reversal: US 20th century, fertility declined, increased at WWII, then declined |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- MDC: 18% world pop, low birth/death rates, low rate of natural increase
- LDC: 82% world pop, high fertility/rate of natural increase
- China low growth rate, Africa high growth rate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- fertility rates declining beginning of 20th century, dramatic increase after WWII, then decline
- children born 1946-1964
- men return from war
- econ growth: few immigrants/available workers, much employment, afford to raise family earlier/have more kids
- then delayed marriage/birth: more education/opportunity
- continues to affect pop growth |
|
|
Term
| implications of changing age structure |
|
Definition
- LDC population pyramid: true pyramid, many infants/children (high fertility), few elderly, median age 16
- MDC population pyramid: rectangular, fewer children/more elderly, median age 35, more female elderly, bulge in 40's (baby boom)
- MDC shift to older population: fewer workers, better econ, more taxation
- economic shift: higher education increased with baby boom, now declining |
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|
