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| science of human cultural and biological variation and evolution |
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| behavior that is shared, learned and socially transmitted |
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| method of studying humans that looks at the interaction between biology and culture in evolutionary adaptation |
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| changes in living organisms over generations |
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| process of successful interaction between a population and an environment, cultural or biological traits that offer an advantage in a given environment |
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| differences among organisms or populations |
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| fossil record, genetics, microbiology, morphology, physiological comparisons, DNA research, common ancestry |
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| mechanisms for evolutionary change favoring the survival and reproduction of some organisms over others because of their biological characteristics |
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| diversity in organisms due to intelligent design, effort to teach non-science concepts in science course |
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| ruled evolution should be taught in schools |
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| essentialism as retarding concept, cognitive simplification, eidos, typological thinking, Scala Naturae |
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| great chain of being, medieval conception, static view of nature influenced by nature, closed-ended hierarchy, no change possible, no evolution/extinction, essence same, position eternal |
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Descartes, Newton
reason, logic, systematic thinking in time of social revolution
faith that reason can rework human situation, evolutionary ideas flourished |
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| Charles Lyell, same processes in past and present, gradual change, no catastrophes, idea that Earth is old |
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| father of taxonomy, binomial nomenclature, humans/apes in same order, concept of unchanging species, ordering God's creatures |
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| father of comparative anatomy and vertebrate paleontology, catastrophism, against evolution, no common origin, no natural hierarchy |
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Histoire Naturelle, evolutionary concepts: common ancestor, Earth is old, breeding experiments, more offspring than can survive
later changed mind to spontaneous species appearance |
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| evolution of acquired characteristics, use and disuse, linear theory, no common ancestor, spontaneous evolution |
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| germ plasma theory, reproductive structures separate from body cells |
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| zoonomia treatise on evolution, old Earth, noted adaptations, inheritance of acquired characteristics |
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| principle of population, can grow rapidly if unrestrained, produce more offspring than can survive |
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Origin of Species (Wallace had same idea, published together)
1. evolution
2. common descent
3. multiplication of species (branching via geographic isolation)
4. gradualism (evolution as a gradual process)
5. natural selection (evolutionary mechanism) |
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Fisher, Haldane and Wright revitalized theory
evolutionary synthesis: reinforced by Mendel's laws of genetics, genes as hereditary variations, populations are genetically variable, selection alters the population, adaptive differences between geographical populations, allopatric speciation |
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| contemporary view of evolution |
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| change in genetic composition of a population between generations via selection (Darwin) or random processes (non-Darwin), selection via differential mortality/reproduction, adaptations preserved by natural/sexual/artificial selection, fitness = individuals of high fertility with offspring to adulthood |
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| Spencer, survival of the fittest |
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sense strand (5'->3') transcribed
AT: 2 bonds, CG: 3 bonds
humans: 23 chromosome pairs (22 auto, 1 sex)
chromosomes uncoiled into chromatin when not dividing, thicken in replication
# chromosomes does not signify complexity
prokaryotes have no introns |
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1. protein-coding
2. RNA specifying (no proteins)
3. regulatory genes (untranscribed, highly conserved, turn on/off) |
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| features of protein-coding genes |
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Definition
flanking sequences
1. promoters: TATA, CAAT/GC controls initiation RNA binding to DNA |
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| pre-mRNA edited (introns removed) to mRNA to amino acids to protein |
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| haploid, 23 unpaired chromosomes, important in evolution |
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| 46 chromosomes in pairs, mutations not passed down, small role in evolution |
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division and non-division
fast during embryogenesis, slow in adults, cycle consists of events between divisions |
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somatic cells
P: chromosomes shorten/thicken
M: align
A: separate
T: membrane reforms
C: split to 2 cells |
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P1->C1 same as mitosis but separate homologous chromosomes to 2 cells with 23 pairs of chromosomes each
split again in P2->C2 to 4 cells with 23 unpaired chromosomes each |
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| constant, creates 4 sperm, short post-reproductive life |
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| stops, 1 egg created, long post-reproductive life |
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| genetic sources of variation |
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| exchange between homologous chromosomes to create mosaic alleles |
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main source of variation in germ line mutations, can be neutral/harmful /helpful (depends on environment)
1. point
2. frameshift
3. inversion
4. monosomy/polysomy |
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| classes of point mutations |
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Definition
substitutions
transitions (switch between purines or pyrimidines ie. A->G)
transversions (switch from purine to pyrimidine or vice versa ie: C->A) |
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synonymous: silent
missense: change AA
nonsense: insert premature stop codon |
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made of 3 bases
64 possible
61 code for AA, 3 for stop codon
20 AA = redundancy |
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1st base: 96% nonsynonymous
2nd base: 100% nonsymonymous
3rd base: 70% synonymous (3rd base wobble, doesn't change AA) |
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insertion, deletion
big change, all AA's different |
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180 degree rotation of 2+ base pairs
occur in hot spots (3rd position)
don't occur in highly conserved areas |
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one chromosome copy/three chromosome copies
one X in women = Turner's syndrome (short/sterile) |
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| physical location on chromosome, may represent a gene (coding region) or non-coding region |
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| variant of a gene, variation at a locus |
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| physical appearance due to genes and environment |
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encoded by 3 alleles on chromosome 18
A, B, AB or O |
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| simultaneous expression (ABO blood group, blood type AB) |
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Gregor Mendel
plant breeding
nature of genetic inheritance
before, thought genes blend in offspring
now, genes are independent units |
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| genes with close loci (same chromosome) usually transmitted together, complete linkage when always transmitted together (linkage disequilibrium), different chromosomes unlinked, never transmitted together = completely unlinked (linkage equilibrium) |
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| recombination (crossing over) |
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| can break linkage of genes on same chromosome |
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many loci affect a single trait
complex diseases caused by many different genes (diabetes - 3)
height/skin color |
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one locus affects many traits
melanin affects eyes/hair/skin |
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affected by multiple genes/environment
more average values than extremes
height |
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have finite number of phenotypes
presence/absence of a trait (cleft chin) |
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| driving processes of microevolution |
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Definition
1. mutation
2. natural selection
3. genetic drift
4. gene flow |
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| evolutionary significance of mutation |
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Definition
(re)introduce new alleles
rare on generational time scale
more variation |
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Definition
no new variation
changes likelihood of alleles passed down
drives evolution
conservative mechanism
nonrandom
decreases variation
nonrandom
deters evolution when deleterious mutations are selected against
strong in some genes, weak in others
humans: relaxed effects |
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Definition
when high, pass more genetic information to next generation
correlated with adaptations |
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| genes with strong effects from natural selection |
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Definition
homeobox genes
position/body axes, embryonic development of whole body
strong because effects irreversible |
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| nonrandomness of natural selection |
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Definition
depends on reproduction/adaptations
order random mutations into adaptive coherent patterns
cumulative change not random |
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Definition
random change in allele frequency between generations
larger populations have weaker effects
small populations can have alleles quickly go to fixation to low/no selection |
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introduces new genes to population
movement of genes from one population to another
via physical movement or visitors leaving genes behind as children
between 2 populations over time causes them to be more similar
weaker with greater geographic distance |
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| interaction of evolutionary forces |
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Definition
can act together or in opposition
historically contingent
no ultimate direction
change just narrows down potential pathways |
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| study of total pattern of genetic variation of a population |
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proportion of population that chooses mates from within the group
depends on geographic/political boundaries, religion |
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actual total population
more inclusive than breeding population
includes children
uneven sex ratios |
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multiple mates
polyandry (1 female, multiple males)
polygyny (1 male, multiple females) |
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| effective population size |
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similar to breeding population but smaller
include sex ratios
fluctuating population size over time |
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| relative proportion of alleles in population |
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# specific genotype / total # individuals
frequencies must add to 1 |
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predicts future genotype frequencies
assumes random mating and no evolution (no selection, mutation, migration, drift)
p + q = 1
psquared + 2pq + qsquared = 1
if predictions differ from future population then assumption is wrong |
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Definition
nonrandom mating
inbreeding
assortive mating (basis of phenotype, either same/different)
lead to change in genotype, selection changes allele frequencies (buildup of deleterious alleles) |
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probability that chance alone could produce observation of deviation from Hardy-Weinberg
<0.05 |
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| selection against recessive alleles |
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Definition
when fitness of AA and Aa = 100% and aa = 0% (lethal)
due to differential mortality, fertility or reproduction |
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| ability to produce children |
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| selection for heterozygotes |
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Definition
balancing selection (sickle cell anemia)
ss = sickle cell, Ss = malaria resistance SS = normal but no malaria resistance |
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| selection of complex traits |
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Definition
look at average value and variation around it
look at low/high extremes
stabilizing/directional/diversifying |
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selection against both extremes in a continuous trait
birth weight |
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selection against one extreme and for the other in a continuous trait
increase in brain size |
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selection for extremes and against the average
none in humans |
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| cause of sickle cell anemia |
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Definition
defect on one beta chain of hemoglobin
homozygous to have condition
substitution of glutamic acid for valine
single AA substitution results in production of less effective hemoglobin (Hb^s instead of Hb^A)
when oxygen requirements increase defective blood cells collapse/become sickle |
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| consequences of sickle cell anemia |
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Definition
impaired circulation (blocked capillaries, decreased lung capacity/musculoskeletal function, paralysis from brain damage)
RBC destruction = anemia (weakness, fatigue, poor physical development, impaired mental function, heart failure)
oxygen deprivation
collection of sickle cells in spleen (enlargement/fibrosis of spleen)
death w/o treatment |
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| sickle cell anemia and malaria resistance |
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Definition
homozygous recessive: always disadvantageous
homozygous dominant: advantageous when environment malaria-free
heterozygous: advantageous in environments with malaria (sickle cells don't provide suitable environment for parasite, lower parasite load) |
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| newt/garter snake relationship |
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Definition
newts evolve greater toxicity because eaten by garter snakes
snake resistance to toxin causes them to move more slowly, more susceptible to own predators, costly |
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| microbe/human relationship |
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Definition
microbes evolve to confer antibiotic resistance because ones that survive antibiotics are most resistant
caused by overuse/misuse of antibiotics
man-made problem |
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Definition
more harmful bacteria (cholera)
contaminated water in Peru from waste/food |
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| wild cats/FIV relationship |
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FIV in house cats
wild cats exposed too but developed resistance
ancestors decimated by virus but strongest survived with a mutation |
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Definition
mutation confers resistance
lack receptors to allow HIV to enter cells
more in caucasians than in blacks because saved people from bubonic plague
now survivors confer HIV resistance |
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Definition
mutual symbiosis
maintain disease-free environment
mats of bacteria on some ants as antibiotics against mold
evolutionary arms race between bacteria/mold |
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| evolutionary significance of whales |
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Definition
show mammals developed on land but then whales moved to water
whale ear part found on wolf-like animal, have wolf ancestors, shown in transitional whales
evolution = tinkering
whale skeletons in Sahara, used to be a lagoon, Basilosaurus
found leg bone of ancient whale
whales move same way as land mammals |
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| important events in evolution |
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Definition
Cambrian explosion: diversity in mammals
Burgess Shale preserved sealife
Becaya: nerve cord, precursor to vertebrates
Hox genes create segmentation, all animals have same set from common ancestor to create body plan
monkeys turned to humans when left trees, became bipedals |
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| type of genetic drift caused by formation of new population by a small number of individuals, marked deviations in allele frequencies from original population |
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basic life classification, natural unit
based on appearance, behavior, ecology, genetics
taxonomists look at morphology |
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Definition
| can't be distinguished by morphology, hybrid zone, subspecies/races on their way to speciation |
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generation of new species from cumulative changes over long period of time
genetics: longterm patterns of change over many generations
extinction as strongest force |
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| simultaneously static (naturalist -> field observations) and dynamic (paleontologists -> fossil records) |
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Definition
| same species, breed, produce fertile offspring |
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| biparental organisms, share common fertilization system, mate-recognition system, sexual reproduction |
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| single lineage of ancestor-descendant populations, maintain distinct identity, evolutionary patterns are ever-changing over long time period |
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Definition
necessary to study
lumpers: one label, more variation within species
splitters: want to create new species labels |
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Definition
origination of species by subdivision
result of environment (extrinsic isolation)
requires decrease/elimination of gene flow between parent/daughter populations with reproductive isolating barriers
once reach reproductive isolation then complete
hard to study since can't observe in a lifetime
inferred from fossil record/living species
links micro/macroevolution, temporarily extended process |
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Definition
most common
populations isolated, don't exchange genes with parent population
over time two populations can't successfully interbreed (pre/postzygotic factors), irreversible reproductive isolation
always geographic factors involved
intrinsic/extrinsic barriers |
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Definition
1. habitat isolation: live in different habitats in same region
2. temporal isolation: mate at different times of day/year
3. ethological isolation: different mating behavior
4. mechanical isolation: mating but no gamete transfer
5. gametic mortality/incompatibility: gamete transfer but egg unfertilized |
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Term
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Definition
1. F1 unviability: hybrid offspring less viable
2. F1 sterility: hybrid offspring less fertile (mules)
3. hybrid breakdown: F2 backcross/later generations have decreased viability/fertility |
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Definition
mutation: more variation, occurs independently of gene flow
genetic drift/natural selection: alter allele frequency after isolation |
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Definition
results from ecological conditions but doesn't require geographic isolation
decreased gene flow
different specialization for different resources
hybrid adaptation inefficient so assortive mating advantageous |
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| small isolated populations |
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Definition
new species appear
mutation/genetic drift have greater influence |
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| requirements for new species formation |
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Definition
different number of genes required to make new species, depends more on which genes differ
less differences between close species
create species by:
1. many small differences
2. one macro mutation (rare, hard to mate)
3. punctuated equilibrium (gaps in fossils): changes in developmental genes, gene regulation, population events
2. |
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Definition
Darwin, species gives rise to different one (due to natural selection) as a result of gradual accumulation of change
doesn't mean evolutionary speed is constant |
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Definition
Eldredge and Gould
evolutionary history of species marked by equilibrium (stasis) with long periods of little change
once populations isolated, speciation occurs at a faster rate (mutation/drift have greater effect)
most phenotypic characteristics change very little over extended time (stasis)
when they do evolve, change rapidly between states (punctuation)
speciation/evolution rapid in short time periods, natural selection as conservative force |
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| causes of sudden speciation |
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Definition
1. polyploidizaiton: hybrid between populations with different chromosomal composition, cross only with other hybrids
2. chromosomal rearrangements: translocation (segment from one chromosome breaks off, attaches to nonhomologous chromosome), inversion, deletion
3. differences in mating system: self-incompatibility, physical differences
all very unlikely! |
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Definition
species classific based on overall similarity
distance between species calculated by algorithms
problems: all traits weighted equally, traits look similar but different evolutionary processes responsible |
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Definition
species classification based on genealogy (branching patterns of phylogeny)
favored method
traits weighted differently, some better clues of relatedness |
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Definition
| independent evolution of similar adaptations in distinct evolutionary lines (fly/bird wings) |
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| same trait arises separately in closely related species, not due to common ancestor (finches in different parts of world) |
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| common function in different species but independent evolution via convergent evolution |
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| shared among species because have common ancestor with trait |
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Definition
| inherited from distant ancestor, have not changed (5 digits on hand/foot) |
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Definition
new, not present in distant ancestor but in most common recent ancestor, new branch
from mutation/natural selection, change from ancestral (horses 1 digit, ancestor 5) |
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Definition
transformation of species over time
ladder-like, no branching
less favorable |
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Definition
species identified from fossil record by physical similarities/differences with other species along evolutionary line (lineage)
H. erectus paleospecies along line to H. sapiens |
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Definition
formation of more than one species from another over time, branching
humans/chimps from common ancestor |
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| anagenesis vs. cladogenesis |
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Definition
anagenesis: if H. erectus to H. sapiens without branching
cladogenesis: H. erectus to H. sapiens and H. neanderthal, sister taxa diverged separately |
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Definition
species exist in multiple ecological relations with other species
species to species competition
no way to eradicate infectious disease, arms race will continue |
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| predatory-prey relationship |
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Definition
predator: selection for traits to maek better hunter
prey: selection for traits to make harder to get
results in escalation: species act as selective forces over one another, co-evolving in relation to each other in order to not be outcompeted |
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Definition
species have to co-evolve as fast as they can run to stay in the same place
competition between species leads to escalation but no species gets advantage |
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Definition
drug resistant variants, virus evolves in response to antibiotics
must develop new antibiotics/ways to slow mutation rate (take off anti-retroviral treatment) |
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Definition
common in other mammals, originally a zoonosis
domestication lead to transmission to humans, became human-to-human disease
antibiotics to treat |
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Definition
efficient, organized
more recent evolutionary origin
more at high latitudes/disturbed habitats |
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Definition
offspring different than parents
less efficient
more complicated
longer to occur
complex mechanisms (must find mate, need adaptations to get mate -> songs, dances)
female butterfly pheromones detected by males
some need other organisms to unite gametes
still very common despite costs in large multicellular organisms |
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Term
| advantages of sexual reproduction |
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Definition
new genomes (haploid to diploid, importance of meiosis)
inter/intra chromosomal recombination (more variation, new potentially adaptive combinations)
accelerates evolution
bring together beneficial mutations
create rare genetic combinations that flourish when common types suffer |
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Term
| costs of sexual reproduction |
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Definition
fewer favorable gene combinations
costly to find a mate/reproduce
species with higher parasite loads tend to be sexual (important in host/pathogen struggle) |
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Definition
explains existence of costly mating traits
some have higher mortality rates
males compete for females, females compete among most attractive males
mate choice more important in females, depends on offspring investment/sex limits to reproduction
self-reinforcing mechanism, can result in evolution of runaway traits, may be balanced by other forms of natural selection |
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| criteria in choosing a mate |
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Definition
good genes (low parasite load): development of health signals, can be costly
attractive offspring
direct benefits: more feeding territory/good hunting skills |
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