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| Wegener could support his theory by the fact that ________ |
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| similar animals were located all over the globe on different continents |
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| Super continent that existed approximately 225 million years ago |
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| 1950s and 60s support for the Continental Drift Theory were |
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| Paleomagnetic studies which showed India once in southern hemisphere and the mechanism for movement was found! (discovery of earth's plates, sea-floor spreading, subduction zones) |
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| If something is living, it must: |
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| Assimilate energy, respond to outside environment, maintain a relatively constant internal environment, reproduce, have DNA, have one or more cells, evolve from other living things, and are highly organized |
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| whether a population is increasing, decreasing, or stable |
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| Population ecology refers to |
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| population growth (increasing, decreasing, stable) |
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| A straight line on a time vs population size graph |
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| Exponential growth (how organisms tend to grow)is |
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| A big curve (J-shaped population growth) |
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| S-shaped growth. it starts out like a j-shape but then flattens out because the organisms are running out of space, food, etc. |
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| the number of individuals |
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| the constant which represents the carrying capacity |
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| Intrinsic Rate of Increase (R) |
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| this will basically describe what the potential is for a given species of population to increase itself (ex: r=0.06 is high intrinsic rate of increase. r=0.02 is low intrinsic rate of increase. r=0 zero population growth. r=-0.05 negative intrinsic rate of increase) |
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| K-Selected Equilibrium Species (such as humans or elephants) |
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Definition
| The population size is limited by carrying capacity (k), it is density dependent (the population is limited by a certain density which can be achieved), relatively stable population size. Organisms are larger, long lived, produce fewer offspring, provide greater care for offspring. |
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| R-Selected Opportunist Species (house flies or insects) |
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| Population size is limited by reproduction rate (r), density independent (they will tend to crash because of temperature or humidity rather than limited resources), relatively unstable (population size looks like a jagged line). Organisms are smaller, short lived, produce many offspring, and provide no care for offspring |
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| Survivorship Curves (percent of population vs. age of organism) |
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| Rectangular curve means that most organims live until old age. Diagonal curve means that organims die at all ages. |
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| Community Ecology is interested in finding out____ |
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Definition
| how does everything interact with each other. the interrelations of everything (ex: you take away a top predator, then what will happen to that predator's prey) |
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| Community Ecologists are interested in studying... |
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| Interactions, community structure, the ecological dominants (what dominates the community, ex: redwoods in our community forest), keystone species (species that dramatically affect the environment and community around them) |
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| Species diversity (in terms of biodiversity) |
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| High biodiversity is many different species. Low biodiversity is few species |
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| Geographic diversity (in terms of biodiversity) |
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| High biodiversity would be broad distribution of species. Low biodiversity would be narrow distribution of species |
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| Genetic Diversity (in terms of biodiversity) |
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| High biodiversity is high genetic diversity within population. Low biodiversity is low genetic diversity within population |
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| The four modes of interaction are |
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| Competition, Predation, Mutualism, and Commensalism |
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| one species is competing with another to try and take their resources for themselves (lose, lose for everyone) |
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| Gause (competitive exclusion) |
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| Russian ecologist that came up with competitive exclusion, which is when two species compete and one wins while the other loses out |
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| (form of competition) when two species coexist and share their resources, however, it still lowers each species' carrying capacity(warblers liking different portions of the same tree and sharing it) |
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| one thing eats another, predator v prey (good for the predator, bad for the prey) |
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| one parasite eats/sucks nutrients from another |
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| Both species / organisms benefit from each other (good for everyone because each benefits) |
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| Rhinoceros and oxpecker birds - the oxpecker birds will eat the ticks and bugs that might land on a rhino’s back, which provides relief for the rhino and nourishes the oxpeckers |
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| One specific benefits, while the other has a neutral experience. ex: cattle egrets and large mammalian herbivores: when the calle sit around and stir up the grass, crickets and bugs will pop up which the egrets will eat. the has no effect on the cattle |
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| the idea that a community changes in its composition of its plants and animals over time. Its ecology is not static |
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| elements that are vital to life |
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| Carbon dioxide is released into the air and back up into the atmosphere |
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| Three Abiotic Cycles that are critical to life are... |
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| Nitrogen cycle, water cycle, and carbon cycle |
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| Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert N2 into ammonia, which converts in water into the ammonium ion. Plants can use the ammonium ion to make protein, dna, and rna. Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium ion to NO3 - which can be assimilated by plants. Some denitrifying bacteria will convert bacteria back into atmospheric nitrogen, which completes the cycle |
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Definition
Water from the ocean evaporates into the atmosphere
90% of the precipitation falls over the ocean, with only 10% on land
The land water will go to groundwater, groundwater runoff, and surface runoff. |
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| Energy comes from the sun, the energy is taken up by plants and they are the producers because they take the sun's energy and store it. The primary consumers are the organisms that eat plants. Secondary consumer will feed on herbivores. Tertiary consumers are those predators which eat the secondary consumers |
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| take dead or dying things so that they can be broken down and decomposed and the nutrients can be returned to the soil |
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| Gross Primary Production (in photosynthesis) |
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| Total material produced through photosynthesis |
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| Energy Pyramid (greatest to smallest) |
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| Primary producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer |
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| Common Descent with Modification |
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| Holds that particular groups, or species, of living things can undergo modification in successive generations, with such change sometimes resulting in the formation of new, separate species |
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| A process in which the differential adaptation of individual organisms to their environment selects those traits that will be passed on with greater frequency from one generation to the next. |
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| Evidence for Theory of Evolution |
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| Radiometric Dating, Fossils (trilobite), Comparative Morphology, Embryology, Biogeography, Gene Modification, and Experimental Evidence |
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| study of how things develop from birth to death |
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| the less of a difference in the DNA nucleotide base in the cytochrome c oxidase gene |
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| Experimental Evidence (for theory of evolution) |
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| John Endler's guppy research and stuyding viral evolution |
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| focuses on evolution within a population or species |
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| a group of organisms who can successfully interbreed with one another in nature, but who don't successfully interbreed with members of other such groups. (humans, chimpanzees) |
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| all the members of a species that live in a defined geographic region at a given time |
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| lead to the expression of what traits we have. they are responsible for different color patterns, traits, characteristics, etc |
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| Gene copies because we all inherit one gene copy (allele) from each parent. we receive two gene copies per trait from our parents |
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| these are what your two alleles are. when you look at the two copies and put htem together, then that is your genotype. provides an underlying basis for an organism's phenotype |
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| Any observable traits that an organism has, including physical characteristics and behavior. whichever alleles are dominant and showing. |
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| if you take all the alleles from a population and put them together, then that is the gene pool |
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| alternation in an organism's DNA; generally has no effect or a harmful effect, but beneficial or "adaptive" mutations are indispensable to evolution |
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| the movement of alleles from one population to another. occurs when individuals move between populations or when one population joins another, assuming the second population has different allele frequencies than the first |
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| Chance alteration of gene frequencies in a population. Most strongly affects small populations. Can occur when populations are reduced to small numbers (the bottleneck effect or when a few individuals from a population migrate to a new, isolated location and start a new population (the founder effect). with relatively small populations, drfit can change the genetic makeup of the popoulation. |
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| occurs when some members of a population mate more often that other members |
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| some individuals will be more successful than others in surviving and hence reproducing, owing its traits that give them a better “fit” with their environment. The alleles of those who reproduce more will increases in frequency in a population. |
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| 5 Forces that bring about change in allele frequencies in a population |
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Definition
| Mutation, Gene Flow, Genetic Drift, Sexual Selection, Natural Selection |
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| Three Stabilizing Modes of Natural Selection |
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Definition
| Stabilizing Selection, Directional Selection, Disruptive Selection |
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Definition
| Individuals that possess extreme values of a characteristic - here, both the lightest and the darkest colors - are selected against and die or fail to reproduce. Over succeeding generations, an increasing proportion of the population becomes average in coloration. (ex: Human birth weight. low birth weight results in infant deaths and high birth weight results in obesity, so the survivors are pulled to the center of the spectrum) |
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Definition
| One of the extremes of a characteristic is better suited to the environment, meaning that individuals at the other extreme are selected against. Over succeeding generations, the coloration of the population moves in a direction - in this case toward darker coloration. |
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Definition
| individuals with average coloration are selected against and die. Over succeeding generations, part of the population becomes lighter, while part becomes darker meaning the range of color variation in the population has increased.(Ex: finches with small beaks make more small beaked finches due to years with smaller average seeds. However, when this changes, so does the population of finches) |
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| only allows a few individuals through. a change in allele frequencies in a population due to chance following a sharp reduction in the population's size. (EX: hunting of seals in 1800s greatly reduced population size and wiped out certain seals with a different allele. The surviving population has a different allele frequency and very little genetic diversity. This different, new allele frequency is reflected in today’s population.) |
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| Two main speciation models |
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Definition
| Allopatric Model (geographical separation) and Sympatric Model |
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| AKA Geographical Separation. There is a geographical separation between a population, which causes two new sub-populaitons. After a population evolves far enough away from its original, it is on its way to becoming a new species |
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| Populations of a single species need not be separated geographically in order to become reproductively isolated from one another. Speciation can occur in the absence of geographical separation. |
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| When a small subpopulation migrates to a new area to start a new population, it is likely to bring with it only a portion of the original population's gene pool. |
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| Extrinsic Isolating Mechanism |
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Definition
| Barriers to interbreeding that are outside of the organism (ex: geographic isolation) |
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| individuals of two populations cannot interbreed if they live in different places (the first step in allopatric speciation) |
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| Intrinsic Isolating Mechanism |
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Definition
| The evolution of internal characteristics that keep organisms from interbreeding (ex: Ecological isolation, Temporal isolation, Behavioral isolation, Mechanical isolation, Gametic Isolation, Hybrid inviability or infertility) |
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Definition
| even if they live in the same place, they can't mate if they don't come in contact with one another |
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Definition
| even if they come in contact with each other, they can't mate if they breed at different times. |
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| Even if they breed at the same time, they will not mate if they are not attracted to one another |
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Definition
| Even if they attract one another, they cannot mate if they are not physically compatible |
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| even if they are physically compatible, an embryo will not form if the egg and sperm do not fuse properly |
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| Hybrid inviability or Infertility |
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| even if fertilization occurs successfully, the offspring may not survive, or if it survives, may not reproduce (e.g., mule) |
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Definition
| the rapid emergence of many species from a single species that has been introduced to a new environment. speciation is more likely to occur when a species is introduced to an environment in which few other species of its kind exist. |
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| the development of new species through evolution |
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