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| contains high energy bonds that are able to facilitate energy transfer in the TCA cycle. |
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| Regulated by activation and inhibition; phosphoylation, and induction/repression. Activated by Citrate - causes it to polymerize. Inhibited by long chain fatty acyl CoA. Insulin: activates it by DEPHOSPHORYLATION. Induction/repression: quantity increases in the fed state. |
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| AMP-dependent protein kinase: |
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| An enzyme system activated by cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and that catalyzes the activity of intracellular proteins. There are two isozymes of protein kinase A, type I and type II. |
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| hormonal 2nd regulator—binds to regulatory subunits of protein kinase A |
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| carnitine:palmitoyltransferase I: |
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| Enzyme that prepares long chain fatty acids for transport into mitochondria. Activated by loss of inhibitor (Malonyl CoA), in the fasting state. |
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| Chylomicrons transport exogenous lipids to liver, adipose, cardiac, and skeletal muscle tissue, where their triglyceride components are unloaded by the activity of lipoprotein lipase. As a consequence, chylomicron remnants are left over and are taken up by the liver. |
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| In cytosol, cleaved by citrate lyase, inductible enzyme, forms OAA and Acetyl CoA |
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| carnitine:palmitoyltransferase I: Enzyme that prepares long chain fatty acids for transport into mitochondria. Activated by loss of inhibitor (Malonyl CoA), in the fasting state. |
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| one of the ways that enzymes are regulated; removal of phosphate group from the enzyme; works more slowly than activation/inhibition, but faster than induction/repression. |
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| dihydroxyacetone phosphate: |
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| (DHAP): intermediate of glycolysis |
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| A stress hormone that promotes the release of glycerol from adipose tissue. |
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| a carboxylic acid with a long unbranched aliphatic tail (chain), which is either saturated or unsaturated. Fatty acids are important sources of fuel because their metabolism yield large quantities of ATP. Many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose. In particular, heart and skeletal muscle prefer fatty acids. The brain cannot use fatty acids as a source of fuel; it relies on glucose or on ketone bodies. |
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| fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase: |
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Definition
| gluconeogenic control enzyme that converts fructose-1,6 bisphosphate to fructose-6 phosphate |
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| fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase: |
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| When glucose level is low, glucagon is released into the bloodstream, triggering a cAMP signal cascade. Protein kinase A thus activated phosphorylates the bifunctional enzyme, activating FBPase2 which lowers fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (F-2,6-BP) levels. Because F-2,6-BP normally stimulates phosphofructokinase-1(PFK1), the decrease in its concentration leads to the inhibition of glycolysis and the stimulation of gluconeogenesis.[8] |
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| fructose-2,6-bisphosphate: |
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Definition
| allosterically affects the activity of the enzymes phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK-1) and fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase (FBPase-1) to regulate glycolysis and gluconeogenesis.[1] Fru-2,6-P2 is synthesized and broken down by the bifunctional enzyme phosphofructokinase 2/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase (PFK-2/FBPase-2).[2] |
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| a monosaccharide (simple sugar) with formula C6H12O6. In animals and fungi, glucose results from the breakdown of glycogen, a process known as glycogenolysis. In animals, glucose is synthesized in the liver and kidneys from non-carbohydrate intermediates, such as pyruvate and glycerol, by a process known as gluconeogenesis. |
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| is an enzyme that hydrolyzes glucose-6-phosphate resulting in the creation of a phosphate group and free glucose |
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| glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase: |
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| is a cytosolic enzyme in the pentose phosphate pathway (see image), a metabolic pathway that supplies reducing energy to cells by maintaining the level of the co-enzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). The NADPH in turn maintains the level of glutathione in these cells that helps protect the red blood cells against oxidative damage. |
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| the insulin-regulated glucose transporter found in adipose tissues and striated muscle (skeletal and cardiac) that is responsible for insulin-regulated glucose translocation into the cell. |
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| a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. |
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| an enzyme that facilitates phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. Glucokinase occurs in cells in the liver, |
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| the molecule that functions as the secondary long-term energy storage. Made primarily by the liver and the muscles, but can also be made by glycogenesis within the brain and stomach |
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| catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the degradation of glycogen in animals by releasing glucose-1-phosphate from the terminal alpha-1,4-glycosidic bond |
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| is the key regulatory enzyme in the conversion of glucose 6-phosphate to glycogen. Glycogen synthase is activated by the dephosphorylation that occurs when insulin is elevated and glucagon is decreased. |
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| is the conversion of glycogen polymers to glucose monomers. Glycogen is catabolized by removal of a glucose monomer through cleavage with inorganic phosphate to produce glucose-1-phosphate. This derivative of glucose is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate, an intermediate in glycolysis. |
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| Hormone Sensitive Lipase: |
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| is activated by protein kinase (from cAMP); hydrolyzes triacylglycerols. It is active when the body needs energy (active with the catecholamines and inactive with insulin). |
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| denotes high (hyper-) blood levels (-emia) of triglycerides, the most abundant fatty molecule in most organisms. It has been associated with atherosclerosis, even in the absence of hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol levels |
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| An important ratio to consider when deciphering the energy is being stored or utilized. |
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| a hormone that is central to regulating the energy and glucose metabolism in the body. Insulin causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat tissue to take up glucose from the blood, storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle. Leads to Dephosphorylation reference Table 36.2. Anabolic hormone (builds things up). |
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| the substrate concentration at which the reaction rate reaches half of its maximum value (Vmax/2) |
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| an enzyme activated by high insulin levels that hydrolyzes lipids in lipoproteins, such as those found in chylomicrons and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), into two free fatty acids and one monoacylglycerol molecule. |
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| generates NADPH for reactions of fatty acid synthase complex. |
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| is the product of the acetyl CoA carboxylase reaction, inhibits CPTI and provides the carbons for the synthesis of palmitate on the fatty acid synthase complex. |
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| generates superoxide by transferring electrons from NADPH inside the cell across the membrane and coupling these to molecular oxygen to produce the superoxide, which is a reactive free-radical. |
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| non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) or adult-onset diabetes – is a metabolic disorder that is characterized by high blood glucose in the context of insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency |
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| pentose phosphate pathway: |
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| the scenic route for making glucose. Also called the Hexose monophosphate shunt. Takes place in the cytosol of the liver. Reactants are glucose + NAD, activated by enzyme Glucose-6-dehydrogenase (known as the oxidative phase). Product is the 1st NADPH adn phosphogluconolactone. Regulated by substrate availability, NADPH (inhibits via negative feedback; insulin (which increases transcription) or Glucagon (which decreases transcription). Reaction yield is 2 NADPH, 1 CO2 and Ribose -5-phosphate. Takes place in the FED state. |
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| an enzyme that removes a phosphate group from its substrate by hydrolysing phosphoric acid monoesters into a phosphate ion and a molecule with a free hydroxyl group (see dephosphorylation) |
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| phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase: |
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Definition
| (PEPCK) is an enzyme in the lyase family used in the metabolic pathway of gluconeogenesis. It converts oxaloacetate into phosphoenolpyruvate and carbon dioxide. |
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Term
| 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase: |
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| an enzyme in the pentose phosphate pathway. It forms ribulose 5-phosphate from 6-phosphogluconate. |
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