Obstructive lung diseases are those that result from a blockage or narrowing of air passageways. Restrictive lung diseases are those that result in a reduction in functional lung tissue. Values such as FEV₁ allow clinicians to determine if an individual has the normal amount of functional lung tissue.

Oxygen consumption increases during exercise as the demands of increased metabolism in tissues such as muscle dictates. Oxygen consumption remains elevated after exercise becuase substances such as lactic acid must be metabolized and also the increased heat generated by exercise drives up metabolic reactions.

Hyperpnea is driven by increased CO₂ production during exercise. Hyperventilation is not driven by [CO₂].

Oxygen debt refers to the fact that breathing remains elevated after exercise becuase oxygen demand remains elevated. This is reflected in the fact that total minute ventilation stays high.

Hyperventilation will drive off CO₂ and reduce the [H⁺] in the blood. This will increase the pH. Hypoventilation will increase the [CO₂] in the alveoli and drive up [H⁺] in the blood. This will reduce the pH.

As the diaphragm contracts (the dome descends) and the volume of the thoracic cavity is increased. The pleura follow and so does the lung tissue. This increases the volume of the alveoli and reduces the pressure. Thus a pressure gradient is set up from outside to inside.

Abdominal muscles and neck muscles including scalenes and the sternocleidomastoid.

The BTPS is used because the volumes measured are in the spirometer which is at room temperature and the air is dry. In the lungs the air is at body temperature and is saturated with water.

Dead space includes those portions of the respiratory system that do not exchange gases with the blood (e.g. trachea and major bronchi).

-Nasal cavity, nasopharynx, pharynx, trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar sacs, alveoli.

-The mucociliary ladder picks up dust, pollen, fibers etc that come in with the air and transports them upwards in the trachea towards the esophagus where they are removed from the respiratory system and swallowed

Normal respiration

Cessation of breathing

Abnormal increase in depth and rate of breathing

Difficult or labored breathing

Increased respiratory rate

Excessively rapid respiratory rate

Total lack of oxygen

Excess CO₂ in blood

Lack of oxygen resulting in death

Collapse of the alveoli

Respiratory passages where gas does not occur

Hemoglobin concentrations for males and females overlap. In males it ranges from 13-16g/dL and in females from 12-15g/dL. Also, hemoglobin production may be increased in athletes. Data in Biology 66 labs usually supports both of these facts.

Anemia is a condition of the blood in which the oxygen carrying capacity is reduced. This may have many causes including hemorrhage and decreased iron and/or vitamin B in the diet. Hypochromic anemia is a result of decreased iron (and therefore less Hb). Decreased iron also results in smaller RBCs (microcytic anemia).

Fe is a key factor in the structure/function of hemoglobin.

-Vitamin B12 (i.e. cobalamin)

• found in dairy products, meat and fish
• deficiency leads to megaloblastic anemia
• RBCs have a short lifespan
• increased MCV, MCHC is normal

-Folic Acid

• found in green leafy vegetables

       -leads to megaloblastic anemia as above

A single hemoglobin molecule can carry 4 molecules of oxygen.

This condition results in excessive amounts of heme being released from the destruction if RBCs. The liver converts the heme into bilirubin. Excess bilirubin not conjugated and excreted in the bile builds up in the blood. This produces a yellowing of the skin and areas such as the sclera of the eyes.

-Hemostasis is the process of keeping blood within the vessels by repairing breaks without compromising the fluidity of the blood.

-Thrombin is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin.

-Fibrin is a protein that comprises threads in the blood clot.

Ventricular depolarization

Flow as a result of systolic pressure

Because this artery feeds both the radial and ulnar arteries.

It reduces the heat loss in the extremities.

Ventricles have a greater muscle mass than the atria.

Relaxation occurs after repolarization. The resulting pressure drop allows the semilunar valves to close.

Ventricular depolarization results in contraction.

Contraction raises ventricular pressure which causes the AV valves to close.

It stops blood flow. Then decreasing the pressure allows flow to occur when it matches systolic pressure. Resulting sounds of Korotkoff stop when pressure matches diastolic pressure.

Sympathetics increase HR (NE)

Parasympathetics decrease HR (ACh)

R-R interval decreased

HR increased