a series of 

oxygen-dependent reactions by 

which cells use the energy in 

organic molecules to make ATP

involve electron 

donors (reducers) and electron 

acceptors (oxidizers)

When Substances accept electrons and

become more negative

When Substances lose electrons and 

become more positive

occurs in the cytoplasm… involves 

splitting glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid

Occurs in the mitochondrial 

matrix and completes degradation of glucose into CO2

Occurs on proteins 

embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane… Uses 

transport of electrons from NADH to oxygen to make 

ATP

 Light absorbing molecule (pigment) in the chloroplasts 

that play an important role in photosynthesis

 A thick fluid found within the inner membrane of the 

chloroplast

Tiny pores in leaves that allow CO2

to enter and O2

to exit

Interconnected membranous sacs suspended within the 

stroma

the absorption of 

light energy by chlorophyll in the 

thylakoid membrane where it is 

converted to chemical energy

involves using the 

products of the light reactions to 

make sugar from CO2

Photosynthesis uses red-orange and blue-violet 

wave lengths of light. It does not use green light.

a discrete packet of 

light energy

 an aggregate of pigments in the thylakoid membrane composed 

of several hundred molecules

When a photon strikes one of the pigment molecules, the energy jumps around 

from molecule to molecule until it arrives at the 

The reaction center consists of chlorophyll a molecules that sit next to another 

molecule called the

The complete set of 

chromosomes in a cell or organism. Each species has 

a characteristic number; however, this number varies 

widely across species

Non-germ cells. Typically contain two 

sets of chromosomes (one derived from mom & one 

derived from dad) and are therefore diploid

Sex cells such as sperm and egg. Contain 

only one member of each of the pairs of chromosomes 

found in somatic cells and are therefore haploid

The primary functions are growth, 

cell replacement, and asexual reproduction

The division of the cytoplasm and the plasma membrane following the division of the nucleus resulting into two cells, each having its own nucleus and cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma cytoplasm.

Diploid with an extra copy of a particular 

chromosome

The observable properties of an 

organism

The genetic constitution of an 

organism or cell

An organism that carries two copies 

of the same allele for a given gene (WW or ww)

An organism that carries different 

alleles for a given gene (Ww)

A trait that is phenotypically

expressed when the genotype is either heterozygous 

or homozygous (example = round seed)

A trait that is phenotypically

expressed only when the genotype is homozygous 

(example = wrinkled seed)

Austrian-Hungarian monk who 

conducted pioneering studies between 1856-1863 on 

the common garden pea, Pisum sativum, that laid the 

foundation for modern genetics.

The study of inheritance patterns from 

generation to generation.

Common view during 

Mendel’s time in which the traits of parents were 

thought to be “mixed” in offspring. 

Plants that produce only offspring 

like themselves, with respect to a given trait, when 

allowed to self-fertilize

A cross between an organism with a 

dominant phenotype and an organism with a recessive 

phenotype (and therefore known genotype)

a progressive neural degeneration, usually 

beginning about middle age, that results in severe physical and 

mental disability and ultimately in death

The offspring that result from a cross 

between varieties that differ in one or more traits

: Crosses in which parental varieties 

differ in one trait of interest

Crosses in which parental varieties differ 

in two traits of interest.

 are determined by 

multiple genetic and environmental factors

specific effects and combined interactions of 

all genetic and environmental factors that 

contribute to the phenotypic value of the trait

diagrams of the relative, linear orders of genes along 

chromosomes.

The genes that control the trait are found on the X 

chromosome and these genes are not present on the Y 

chromosome

Adjacent nucleotides are linked 

by

Physical mechanism 

for base-pairing 

Discovery of the structure of DNA is largely 

credited to

- Empirical work using X-ray diffraction

– 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology & Medicine

Nucleotide monomers are added 

one by one to the end of a 

growing strand by

The position along a DNA 

molecule at which replication begins

The region along a DNA 

molecule at which the parental strands are 

separating and new strands are being 

synthesized

The process of generating a new 

replication fork

• A common mechanism of replication in circular 

genomes

one daughter strand that is oriented 

with its 3’ end pointing toward the replication fork

the 

other daughter strand is oriented with 

its 3’ end pointing away from the replication fork

The solution to this problem is to synthesize the lagging 

strand in small sections

 hijack the host’s cellular 

machinery and use that machinery to make 

additional viral particles

Typically bind to the outside of a 

bacterium and inject DNA particle 

into the cell

a virus with an 

RNA genome

Retroviruses are so named because their genomes encode 

an enzyme known as r

Chromosome or section of a chromosome in which 

the order of genes is reversed from the normal order

Chromosome with more than one copy of a 

particular region

Aberrant chromosome that results from 

interchange (i.e., recombination) between non-homologous 

chromosomes