Term
| All mammals reproduce _______ |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| looks like mitosis where the organism splits in half to create a complete other, identical organism |
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Term
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Definition
| small, identical organisms grow off the parent |
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Term
| Fragmentation or Regeneration |
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Definition
| Where the parents splits into several fragments which each grow into identical organisms |
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Term
| Echinoderms have the ability to completely regenerate a whole individual from _________ |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| a form of asexual reproduction where growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization |
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Term
| Animals capable of parthenogenesis |
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Definition
| lizard & Komodo dragons, sharks, amphibians, and birds, bdelloid rotifers |
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Term
| Up to ____% of all domestic turkey eggs are parthenogenic, but all are _______ because |
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Definition
| 30, male because in birds the female is heterozygous for sex |
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Term
| Adavantageous alleles can appear in a single individual much more quickly in a ________ population that depends on sequential mutation |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
small haploid cell that is formed concomiitantly as an egg cell during oogenesis but which generally does not have the ability to be fertilized.
An egg cell that does not get enough cytoplasm and typically dies, but in some cases don't |
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Term
| Most crucial difference between mammalian cleavage and all other types is __________ |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| When blastomeres form a loose ring through the 8 cell phase, but after the 3rd cleavage, they compact and get very close and make a ball |
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Term
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Definition
| when the cells of the compacted 8-cell embryo divide to produce a 16-cell morula |
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Term
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Definition
| consists of a small group of internal cells surrounded by a larger group of external cells |
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Term
| The group of external cells of the morula become the ________ or ___________ cells |
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Definition
| trophoblast or trophectoderm |
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Term
| trophoblast cells do not produce _________ but make up the _______, the embryonic portion of the placenta |
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Definition
| embryonic structures, chorion |
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Term
| The chorion enables the fetus to__________ |
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Definition
| get oxygen and nutrients from the mother and produces hormones that tell the uterus to keep the embryo and regulators that tell the body not to reject the embryo |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which the trophoblast cells secrete fluid into the morula to create a blastocoel resulting in a blastocyst |
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Term
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Definition
| an early stage in embryo development |
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Term
| cooperative interactions between the trophoblast cells and the maternal cells form the __________ |
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Definition
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Term
| Is the venous system of the fetus directly connected to that of the mother? |
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Definition
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Term
| At birth, the average placenta weighs |
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Definition
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Term
| Oxygen moves through the body by __________, going from areas of high concentration to low concentration |
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Definition
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Term
| When inside the womb, a baby gets oxygen through the _________. |
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Definition
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Term
| How does the baby get oxygen from the mother is their blood systems are not connected? |
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Definition
| the mother's blood is brought between the chronic villi and the baby's blood is brought here via the umbilical cord. The arteries and veins never touch, but blood is deposited and taken within |
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Term
| How does the fetal blood system "take" oxygen from maternal blood cells? |
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Definition
| Fetal blood cells are better at soaking up oxygen than are maternal cells |
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Term
| Gene duplication and divergence |
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Definition
| a major source of genetic variability on which selection can act. Can result in partial loss of gene function, degeneration, or give rise to modified or new functions |
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Term
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Definition
| partial loss of gene function |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| modified or new functions |
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Term
| The ________________ represents a classic example of how gene duplication and divergence can lead to new functions over evolutionary history |
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Definition
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Term
| Myoglobin is only found in the blood after |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
egg laying mammals with fur and mammary glands
thought to be earliest mammals |
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Term
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Definition
divide and make identical copies of themselves (self renewal)
remain unspecialized with no "specific" function
or be specialized (differentiated) with the potential to produce over 200 different types of cells in the body |
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Term
| Pluripotent stem cells can |
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Definition
| differentiate into every type of cell in the body |
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Term
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Definition
each cell can develop into a new individual
example: cells from 1-3 day old embryos |
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Term
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Definition
cells can form any cell type (over 200)
example: some cells of a blastocyst (5-14 day old embryo) |
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Term
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Definition
cells differentiated but can form a number of other tissues
example: fetal tissue, cord blood, and adult stem cells |
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Term
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Definition
| harvested from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst 7-10 days after fertilization |
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Term
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Definition
| umbilical cord blood contains stem cells similar to those found in bone marrow |
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Term
| Placenta derived stem cells |
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Definition
| up to 10 times as many stem cells can be harvested from a placenta as from cord blood |
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Term
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Definition
| many adult tissues contain stem cells that can be isolated |
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Term
| Places adult stem cells can be found |
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Definition
| blood, bone marrow, liver, kidney, cornea, dental pulp, umbilical cord, brain, skin, muscles, salivary glands, etc. |
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Term
| Why is stem cell research so important? |
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Definition
allows us to study how organisms grow and develop over time
can replace diseased or damaged cells that cannot heal or renew themselves
we can test different substances on stem cells
better understanding of our "genetic machinery" |
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Term
| Is it better to test drugs on patients or stem cells? |
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Definition
| Stem cells so that if the cells respond poorly, it will not affect the whole patient |
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Term
| By day _____ the cells of the blastocyst have differentiated into the trophoblast (which gives rise to the _________) and the inner mass cells (which gives rise to the _________) |
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Definition
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Term
| Studies have found that ____-______% of fertilized eggs are lost before or during the process of implantation |
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Definition
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Term
| About ______-______% of known pregnancies end in miscarriage and more than _____% of these losses happen before 12 weeks |
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Definition
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Term
| Between _____-______% of 1st trimester miscarriages are thought to be random events caused by chromosomal abnormalities in the fertilized egg |
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Definition
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Term
| Molecules are exchanged between different bodily systems by |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| movement from high concentration to low concentration |
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Term
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Definition
the target call of a controlled variable that is maintained physiologically by bodily control mechanisms for homeostasis
the ideal normal value of a variable |
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Term
| Values of variables fluctuate around the set point to establish a ____________ of values |
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Definition
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Term
| The three function components to a homeostatic control system |
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Definition
a receptor--thermometer
a control center--thermostat
an effector--heater |
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Term
| Positive feedback loop is a _________ loop |
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Definition
reinforcing
results in the increasing level of one output which increases the second output which increases the first output |
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Term
| Negative feedback loop is a _________ loop |
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Definition
diminishing
results in the increasing level of one output which decreases the second output which decreases the first output |
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Term
| Would the human population be considered a positive or negative feedback loop or neither? |
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Definition
positive loop
the more people are born, the more the population grows, the more the population grows, the more people there are to have babies |
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Term
| What are some homeostasis examples in animal systems? |
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Definition
temperature
glucose
blood pressure
pH
water
calcium
oxygen
toxin levels |
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Term
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Definition
| the pressure your heart exerts when it beats |
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Term
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Definition
| your blood pressure when your heart is in between beats |
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Term
| The thermal conductivity of fat tissue is roughly ______ that of muscle, ____% that of dermal tissue and about the same as ________ tisue |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| A woman can have anywhere from _____%-_______% more fat than a man |
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Definition
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Term
| Basal Metabolic rate (BMR) |
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Definition
the metabolic rate measured with the subject awake in the morning, fasting, at neutral ambient temperature and resting horizontally in the respiratory steady state
Measured in Watts/m2 of body surface area |
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Term
| BMR _______ in both genders with age. |
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Definition
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Term
| Males typically have ________ BMR than women of the same day |
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Definition
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Term
| Body Surface Area is estimated with the formula: |
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Definition
| BSA (in cmsquared)= Weight (in kg)(raised to .425)x height (in cm)(raised to the .725)x 71.84 |
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Term
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Definition
| the sum of all chemical reactions in which energy is made available and consumed in the body |
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Term
| Exercise can increase metabolic rate from resting at ________ to _________ with walking, dancing, or sex and __________ with long distance running |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| Body temperature varies depending on environment |
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Term
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Definition
| maintain constant body temperatures despite environmental fluctuations |
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Term
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Definition
| energy comes from internal mechanisms |
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Term
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Definition
| energy comes from external sources |
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Term
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Definition
marked by fever and unconsciousness
caused by the body failing to regulate temperature when exposed to excessively high heat |
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Term
| Most mammals and birds have ______ for sensors and ______, _____, and ________ for effectors |
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Definition
| nerves; muscles, skin, vessels |
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Term
| Why do we shiver when we have a fever? |
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Definition
| When we have a fever, our set point for temperature is raised. This causes the body temperature to rise, but the patient feels cold until the new set point is reached |
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Term
| Shivering activates _________ to convert chemical energy directly to heat |
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Definition
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Term
| Shivering is the early response to |
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Definition
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Term
| Potential benefits to a fever below 104 |
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Definition
| fights infection, slows bacteria & viruses, raises white blood cell soldiers, raises acute phase response, quick recovery, protects the body |
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Term
| What mitochondria use to produce energy |
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Definition
| glucose and its breakdown products |
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Term
| Efficiency of a mitochondria producing energy |
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Definition
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Term
| Brown fat mitochondria only produce |
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Definition
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Term
| Brown fat can be found in/around |
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Definition
| the neck, clavicle, vertebrae |
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Term
| White fat can be found in/around |
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Definition
| the thighs, butt, gonads, hips, back, inner cavities, lower abdomen, breasts |
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Term
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Definition
| small tubular structures of the skin that produce sweat |
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Term
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Definition
| eccrine sweat glands, apocrine sweat glands |
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Term
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Definition
distributed almost all over the body
water based secretion
primary form in cooling humans |
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Term
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Definition
mostly limited to armpits and perianal areas
not very good in humans but only sweat glands in hoofed animals |
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Term
| Modified apocrine sweat glands |
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Definition
| ceruminous glands (make ear wax), mammary glands, ciliary glands (In eye lids) |
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Term
| Women have ___________ sweat glands than men |
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Definition
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Term
| Difference between antiperspirants and deodorants |
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Definition
| Deodorant kills bacteria in apocrine sweat while antiperspirants stop up eccrine sweat glands with aluminum compounds |
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Term
| Why are humans relatively hairless compared to other primates? |
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Definition
| When we started wearing clothes, hair became a disadvantage; humans prefer mates with less body hair; being able to sweat gave our ancestors some sort of selective advantage |
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Term
| The three systems which glucose metabolism uses |
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Definition
| digestive, circulatory, excretory |
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Term
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Definition
| starch, glycogen, simple & complex sugars |
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Term
Usable/Storable form of glucose
Where it is stored |
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Definition
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Term
| Homeostatic receptor for glucose |
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Definition
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Term
| Homeostatic control center for glucose |
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Definition
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Term
| Homeostatic effector for glucose |
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Definition
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Term
| Maintenance of blood sugar levels is mostly dependent on ___________ specifically _________ and _________ |
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Definition
| hormones; glucagon and insulin |
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Term
| Beta cells sense when blood sugar is ________ and produce _________ |
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Definition
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Term
| Alpha cells sense when blood sugar is ______ and release |
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Definition
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Term
| How does the liver help control blood sugar? |
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Definition
| when stimulated by insulin, it converts blood glucose into glycogen. when stimulated by glucogon, it will break down glycogen into glucose and release it not the blood |
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Term
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Definition
| a group of metabolic diseases in which the person has high blood glucose levels, either because insulin production is inadequate or because the body's cells do not response to insulin, or both |
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Term
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Definition
Type 1- sudden
Type 2- gradual |
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Term
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Definition
Type 1- any age, but mostly young
Type 2- mostly in adults |
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Term
| Body habitus of diabetes patients |
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Definition
Type 1- thin or normal
Type 2- often obese |
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Term
| Autoantibodies presence in diabetes patients |
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Definition
Type 1- usually present
Type 2- absent |
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Term
| Endogenous insulin in diabetes patients |
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Definition
Type 1- low or absent
Type 2- normal, decreased, or increased |
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Term
| Prevalence of diabetes types |
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Definition
Type 1- less prevalent
Type 2- more prevalent at 90-95% of US diabetics |
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Term
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Definition
5-10% of people with diabetes
body's immune system destroys the cells that release insulin eventually eliminating insulin production |
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Term
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Definition
can develop at any age
the body isn't able to use insulin the right way (insulin resistance)
as it gets worse, the pancreas produces less and less insulin (insulin deficiency) |
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Term
| Experiment that Frederick Banting & Charles Best did in 1921 |
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Definition
| They removed the pancreas from dogs and induced diabetes and then removed fluid from the Islets of Langerhans from healthy dogs to restore normality. They later perfected isolation of insulin from dead cow pancreases |
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Term
| Eli Lilly met with researchers in 1922 to |
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Definition
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|
Term
Bovine insulin differs from human by only __ amino acids
Porcine insulin differs by only ___ amino acids |
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Definition
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Term
| Most problematic thing about diabetes management |
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Definition
| the body is constantly going from blood glucose that is too high to too low instead of staying close to the set point |
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Term
| Renal Glucose reabsorption |
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Definition
| filtered glucose is recovered preventing it from leaving the body via urine |
|
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Term
| the presence of glucose in urine is a condition called |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| sodium-glucose linked transporter |
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Definition
a family of glucose transporter found in the intestinal mucosa of the small intestine and the proximal tubule of the nephron.
they contribute to renal glucose reabsorption |
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Term
| KNOW THE PARTS OF THE NEPHRON IN A DIAGRAM |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| interconnected nerve cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| multiple nerve cells bundled together |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Peripheral nervous system |
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Definition
| cranial nerves, ganglia, spinal nerves |
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Term
| 5 groups of neurotransmitters |
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Definition
| acetylcholine, amino acids, biogenic amines, neuropeptides, gases |
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Term
|
Definition
| muscle stimulation, memory formation, learning |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
sleep, mood, attention, learning
used for nervous system disorders and treatments |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
nitric oxide (local regulators)
carbon monoxide (hypothalmic hormone release, intestine smooth muscle plasma membrane hyper polarization) |
|
|
Term
| How does nicotine effect the nervous system? |
|
Definition
| it blocks acetylcholine receptors |
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|
Term
| Who was the first person to use insulin on humans? |
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Definition
| Sir Frederick Grant Banting |
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Term
| Neurotransmitter molecules are released from the __________ and received by the receptors on the _____________ |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the charge difference, or voltage, between the inside and outside of the axon |
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|
Term
| resting potential of an axon |
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Definition
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