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Term
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Definition
Stimulates an immune response/productino of antibodies.
(Most are proteins or polypeptides)
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Definition
Elimination of non-self (pathogens) before symptoins occur, or shortly thereafter. |
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Definition
You, molecular recognition |
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Characteristic of verebrates |
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Definition
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Does not require pre-exposure to pathogen.
1: Barrier defense
2: Internal defense |
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Definition
Antigenic determinant site
(Binds to antigen-binding site) |
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Definition
Produced in response to antigen |
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Definition
How quickly makes host sick/how sick the host gets. (how nasty it is) |
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Definition
Decrease in virulence. Attenuated strains give a stronger immune response. |
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Innate immunity of vertebrates |
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Definition
Barrier Defenses and Cellular innate defenses |
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Definition
Innate immunity.
Epithelial tissues block entry.
Mucous membranes line digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive tracts.
Lysozymes in tears, saliva and mucous.
Acidic environment in stomach.
Oil and seat glands give human skin low pH |
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Definition
Phagocytic cells: Detect fungal or bacterial components using receptors. They engulf cells, trapping them in vacuoles that fill with lysosome. Lysosome produces gases that poisons the engulfed pathogens, or degrade the components of the pathogens with lysosomes and enzymes.
Neutrophils, Macrophages, Dendritic cells, Eosionphils, Toll-like receptors (TLR) |
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Definition
Phagocytic cell
Circulate in blood and are attracted by signals from infected tissues and engulf and destroy infecting pathogens. |
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Definition
Phagocytic cell
Large phagocytic cells. |
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Definition
Phagocytic cell
Populate tissues that contact the environment, such as skinn. They stimulate adaptive immunity against pathogens. |
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Definition
Phagocytic cell
Important in defending against multicellular invaders, such as parasites. They discharge destructive enzymes.
Under mucous membranes |
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Term
Toll-like receptors (TLR) |
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Definition
On phagocytic cell
Binds to fragments of molecules characteristic of pathogens. |
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Definition
Located on immune cell plasma, recognizes lipopolysaccharide, a molecule found on the surface of bacteria. |
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Definition
A return to the norm reduces or turns off a response. |
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Definition
Gain most of their heat from external sources. |
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Definition
Warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism. |
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Definition
Homeothermic endotherms. Allow temperature to drop w/in +/- 2 standard deviations of set pt. |
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Definition
Body temp. is based around Ambient temp. Ta. |
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Definition
Stay around set pt. regardless of habitat. Relatively constant body temp. (Mostly endotherms.) |
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Definition
Temperature of surroundings (Ta). |
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Definition
Temperature of body. (Tb). |
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Term
Physiologicial thermoregulation |
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Definition
Very energy-intensive. Last resort
Includes shivering thermogenesis, non-shivering thermogenesis, torpor, aestivation, and hibernation. |
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Definition
A type of physiological thermoregulation.
Rapid contraction of skeletal muscles to produce heat. |
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Term
Non-shivering Thermogenesis |
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Definition
A type of physiological thermoregulation.
Uncoupling of ATP synthesis in Electron Transport Chain. |
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Definition
A physiological state of decreased metabolism. Adaptation that enables animals to save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions.
- Many small mammals and birds exhibit daily torpor that is adapted to feeding patterns.
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Definition
Lowering of metabolic rate to get through drought or heat. |
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Definition
Long term torpor that is an adaptation to harsh winter and food scarcity. |
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Behavioral Thermoregulatiion |
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Definition
The pulling in of extremeties to conserve heat. |
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Term
Anatomical thermoregulation |
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Definition
Structure of the organism in order to conserve heat. |
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Term
Morphological thermoregulation. |
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Definition
Overall shape for heat conservation. |
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Definition
A network of tubules intermingled between b/t the capillaries of the cardiovascular system. Drains into large veins of the circulatory system at the base of the neck. |
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Definition
Fluid lost by the capillaries. Composition is the same as interstitial fluid. |
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Definition
Part of the vertebrate lymphatic system. Initial point of entry into the lymph for chylomicrons. |
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Definition
Have valves that prevent backflow of fluid. Act like veins except for lymph. Skeletal muscle contractions play a role in moving the lymph. |
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Definition
Organs located along the lymph vessels. Filter lymph and contain cells that attack viruses and bacteria. |
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Definition
Contains phagocytic cells that consume old erythrocytes. |
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Definition
Unique to vertebrate immunity. Proteins that provide innate defense by interfering with viral infections. Virus-infected body cells secrete interferons, which induce nearby uninfected cells to produce substances that inhibit viral reproduction. They limit cell-to-cell spread of virsues. Some white blodo cells secrete diffeterent interferons that help activate macrophages |
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Definition
Involved in inflammation. 20-30 proteins, part of enzyme cascade, released in cytokines. Only circulate in the blood as zymogines.
Antibodies activate the complement system. |
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Definition
Histamine that is stored in granules of mast cells, triggers nearby blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable. Macrophages and neutrophils discharge cytokines, signaling molecules that enhance an immune response and promote blood flow to the site of injury or infection.
Redness and increased temperature is caused by an increase in local blood supply. Swelling is caused by leaking fluid into the neighboring tissues. |
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Term
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Definition
Pathogen-specific recognition.
The binding of an antigen receptor to an epitope initiates the activation of the lymphocytes.
Secondary immune response, being able to combat antigens quicker after the first exposure, is only in adaptive immunity.
Based on two types of lymphocytes, types of white blood cells, T cells and B cells. Lymphocytes originate from the stem cells in the bone marrow. T cells mature in the thymus gland, B cells mature in the bone marrow. |
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Definition
Any substance that elicits a response from a B cell or a T cell |
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Definition
Receptor that binds to just one part of one molecule from a particular pathogen. |
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Definition
Small accessible portion of an antigen that binds to an antigen receptor |
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Definition
Y-shaped molecule consisting of four polypeptide chains, two light chains and two heavy chains. The tips of the Y-shape have a variable region, the rest is constant. |
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Term
Antibody/immunoglobulin (Ig) |
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Definition
Have the same Y-shaped organization of B cell antigen receptors, but are secreted rather than membrane bound.
Antibodies actually help defend against pathogens. |
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Term
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Definition
T cells consist of an ᶛ chain and a ᵝ chain. The variable region of the ᶛ and the ᵝ chains form a single antigen-binding site. |
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Definition
Bind to epitopes of intact antigens ciruclating in body fluids |
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Term
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Definition
T cells bind only to fragments of antigens that are displayed on the surface of host cells. The host protein displays the epitope on the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) moleucle. |
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Term
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Definition
The display of the antigen fragment in the groove of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule |
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Definition
Short-lived cells that take effect immediately against the antigen |
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Definition
Long-lived cells that can give rise to effector cells if the same antigen is encountered later in the animal's life |
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Definition
Proliferation of a lymphocyte in response to an antigen. |
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Definition
First class of soluble antibody produced |
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Definition
Allergens: Ig-E antibodies are created in response to exposure to an allergen and bind to a mast cell. When allergens bind to Ig-E receptors, they cross link causing the mast cell to release histamine from granule |
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Definition
Most abudant antibody in blood |
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Definition
Functions in active immunity. Provides additional passive immunity to infants digestive tract while they develop. Is found in tears, mucus membranes, breast milk, sweat and oil. |
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Definition
Membrane bound B cell antigen receptors. |
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Definition
Thermal Neutral Zone
Alteration of Ta. Mr stays the same. |
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Definition
Upper Critical Temperature
Too hot |
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Definition
Lower critical temperature.
Too cold |
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Definition
Metabolic Rate
Rate of metabolism. CC O2/Hour |
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Definition
Body is at its optimum functionality |
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Definition
Stress zone outside of biological optimum. |
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Definition
Increased surface area of the small intestine |
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Definition
Breaks down triglycerides into monoglycerides and fatty acids. |
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Definition
Monoglycerides and fatty acids are anabolized into triglycerides. Triglycerides are incorporated into water-soluble glovules called chylomicrons. |
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Definition
Lipase breaks down triglycerides down to fatty acids and monoglycerides.
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Definition
Vitamin B7, coenzyme in synthesis of fat, glycogen and amino acids |
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Definition
Finger-like projections from the large folds in the small intestine |
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Definition
Microscopic finger-like projections from the epithelial cells of the villi |
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Definition
Process by which animals control solute concentrations and balance water gain and loss. |
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Definition
Control internal osmolarity independent of that of its environment |
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Definition
Isoosmotic with surroundings |
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Definition
Animals that can survive large fluctuations in external osmolarity. Euryhaline osmoconformers include many barnacles and mussels. Euryhaline osmoregulators are striped bass and various species of salmon. |
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Definition
Cannot tolerate substantial changes in external osmolarity |
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Definition
Organism that excretes uric acid. |
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Definition
Organism that excrete ammonia |
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Definition
Organism that excrete urea. |
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Definition
Produced by most reptiles, insects and land snails. It is relatively nontoxic and does not readily dissolve in water. It can be excreted as a semisolid past which reduces water loss. Uric acid requires lots of ATP to synthesize. |
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Definition
Produced by mammals, most amphibians, sharks and some bony fishes. Produced in the vertebrate liver, also a product of metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with carbon dioxide. Very low toxicity, can transport urea in circulatory system and store it safely at high concentrations. |
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Definition
Produced by most aquatic animals. Ammonia can only be tolerated at very low concentrations. Access of water is needed to keep ammonia dilute. Fish lose most of their ammonia as NH4 through gills. |
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Definition
A region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases. |
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Definition
The extraction fo water and small solutes, including metabolic waste from the body fluids |
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Definition
Seperation of molecules by weight due to hydrostatic pressure |
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Definition
Food processing in animals. The uptake of small nutrient molecules |
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Definition
The recovery of water and solutes from filtrate. |
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Definition
Discharge of waste from the body fluid into the filtrate |
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Definition
Waste and water. Hyperosmotic to blood. |
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Definition
Secrete ADH, and monitor the osmolarity of blood and regulate the release of ADH from the posterior pituitary. |
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Definition
Stores and releases hormones. |
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Definition
Antidiuretic Hormone (vasopressin). Makes epithelium of collecting duct more permeable to water. Increasing water reabsorption, concentratiating and reducing the volume of urine, lowers blood osmolarity back toward the set point.
ADH is a response to an increase in blood osmolarity. Helps when dehydrated. ADH can lower blood Na+ concentration by stimulating water intake. |
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Definition
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Hormone cascade that helps regulate blood pressure.
Released by Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) in response to a drop in both blood volume and pressure . When the body losses both salt and body fluid, not changing osmolarity. RAAS helps maintain set point by stimlating Na+ reabsorption. |
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Definition
A hormone that acts on the nephron's distal tubules and collecting duct, making them reabsorb more Na+ and water, thus increasing blood volume and pressure. |
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Definition
Cleaved by renin to create Angiotensin I. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) splits off two amino acids from angiotensin I to form angiotensin II. |
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Definition
Raises blood pressure by consricting arterioes, decreasing blood flow to man capillaries, including those of the kidney. It also stimulates the adrenal gland to release aldosterone. |
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Definition
Occurs between two fluids seperated by one or more membranes and flowing in opposite directions. |
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Definition
A complex of arteries and veins lying close to each other. Used in countercurrent exchange. |
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Definition
Go deeper into the renal medulla. This creates a more concnetrated, hyperosmotic, solution. Important in the creation of urine. |
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Definition
In the gills, specialized chloride cells actively transport chloride ion in and out, Na+ follows passively. In marine animals, Cl is pumped out while freshwater fish pum Cl in. |
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Definition
Used to secrete salt. Countercurrent exchange is used to remove salt from blood by transport epithelia. Salt is released through ducts to the nostril. |
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Term
Elasmobranch osmoregulation |
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Definition
Cartilaginous animals have an internal salt concentration much lower than that of seawater. Salt tends to diffuse into their bodies from the water. Their skin contains high concentrations of urea, a nitrogenous waste product of protein and nucleic acid metabolism, and trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) a molecule that protects proteins from damage by urea. |
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Definition
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Definition
Antibodies attach to virus so they can't attach to cells. |
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Definition
Soluble antigens react with soluble antibodies to create an insoluble product |
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Definition
Test for certain antibodies and antigens. |
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Definition
Binding of antibodies to antigens on the surface of bacteri promotes phagocytosis by macrophages and neutrophils. |
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Term
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Definition
A disorder in which an immune system response to antigens is deficient or absent. |
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Term
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Definition
Immune system attacks healty self cells as a result of no self-tolerance |
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Term
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Definition
Artificial exposure to a pathogen inducing active immunity |
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Term
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Definition
Short term immunity as a result of the trasfer of antibodies.
Maternal antibodies from mother to fetus or nursing infant. |
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Term
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Definition
Long term immunity from B and T memory cells. Can result from exposure or vaccination. |
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Term
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Definition
Antigen Presenting Cell.
Have MHC II. Important for activation. Dendritic cells, macrophages and some B cells. |
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Term
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Definition
T Helper Cells with CD4 Protein. Activate B-cells and Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes (CTL) |
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Term
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Definition
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) with CD8 protein. Bind to infected cells MHC I and kill with perforin and granzymes. |
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Term
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Definition
Natural Killer Cells. Cells circulate through the body and detect abnormal array of surface proteins. They release chemicals that lead to cell death. Non selective. |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
B cell effector cells. Proliferated by activated B lymphocytes, and produced soluble antigen receptors, antibodies. |
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Term
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Definition
Activated t helper cells produced cytokines that actiavte cytotoxic t cells (CTL.) CTLs bind to infected cells at the class I major histocompatibility (MHC) molecule and CD8 accessory protein. CTLs secrete perforin to form pores in the infected cells and granzymes to break down proteins. |
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Term
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Definition
(Humoral)
Activated T helpper cells bind to antigen presented on MHC II of B-cell and produced cytokines that activate B-cell and stimulate proliferation of b-cells which produced plasma cells (and b mem cells) Plasma cells secrete antibodies (soluble antigen receptors) into the fluids. |
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Definition
Acquire immunodeficiency syndrome |
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Term
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Definition
Human immunodeficiency virus
Retrovirus, attacks CD4 of Th cell |
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Definition
Killed, take more than once. |
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Definition
Attenuated, alive. Taken only once. Chance of getting polio. |
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Definition
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Definition
Second exposure, memory cells. |
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Definition
Milk.
Ig A (some IgM/igG) |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Killing of certain clonal colonies that would attack self. Integral a functional immune system. |
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Definition
Fundamental unit of the nervous system, conduct signals via electric charge across its plasma membrane |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
Type of glial cell that forms insulating myelin sheath around axons of neuron in the PNS |
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Definition
Gap in myelin sheath of axons where an action potential may be produced |
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Definition
Membrane around neuron (Myelin sheath) |
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Definition
Long process of nerve fiver that conducts impulses away from body of nerve cell. |
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Definition
Numerous short branched extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons |
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Definition
Part of neuron that includes the nucleus, excludes the process. |
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Definition
A type of glial cell that forms insulating myelin sheaths around the axon of neurons in the CNS |
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Term
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Definition
A glial cell with diverse functions, providing structural support for neurons, regulating the interstitial environment, facilitating synaptic transmissions and assisting in regulating the blood supply to the brain |
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Term
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Definition
The supporting structure of nervous tissue, consisting of a fine web of tissues enclosing neurglial cells. |
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Definition
The difference in voltage between the inside of the cell and the surrounding matter. |
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Definition
+30 mV. Voltage where all Na gates open, and neuron fires. All or nothing stage. |
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Term
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Definition
Due to refractory hyperpolarization. Presynaptic neuron won't fire even if stimulus is applied. |
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Term
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Definition
Occurs during repolarization, neuron won't fire even if stimulus is applied |
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Definition
Action potential jumping from one node of ranvier to the other. Is rapid transmission of nerve impulse along axon. |
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Term
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Definition
1-2mm Max.
Either really thick, or insulated. We have insulated. |
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Term
Action potential propagation |
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Definition
One action potential induces another. |
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Definition
Long process of nerve fiber that conducts impulses away from body of nerve cell. |
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Term
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Definition
Can receive signals from other molecules, but cannot conduct. |
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Term
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Definition
Can receive signals from other molecules, but cannot conduct. |
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Definition
Beginning of axon where action potential is intiated |
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Term
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Definition
Structure that passes neurotransmitter to other neuron |
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Term
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Definition
(Cleft)
Gap between presynpatic neurons synpase and postsynaptic neuron |
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Term
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Definition
The site where motor neurons synapse with muscle cells |
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Term
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Definition
Site at which nerve impulses are received by muscles |
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Term
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Definition
Membrane bound compartments containing neurotransmitters |
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Term
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Definition
Function as a second messenger. All cells maintin extracellular Ca2+ 1k to 10k X intracellular Ca2+ |
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Term
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Definition
Na+/K+ channel or carrier proteins. Cleaves ATP and release energy. |
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Term
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Definition
Neurotransmitter released at synaptic terminal, diffuses across synpatic cleft and binds to receptor proteins on muscle fiber's plasma membrane, triggering an action potential in muscle fiber. |
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Term
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Definition
Acetylcholinesterase
Hydrolyzes ACH. Serves to terminate synaptic transmission. |
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Term
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Definition
Actively transport Na+ or K+ into or out of the cell. |
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Term
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Definition
=65mV to -85mV. Has polarized cell membrane. Na gates close K gates close by are "leaky" |
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Term
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Definition
Na+ gates open as voltages change-->Na+ diffuses into cell-->inside of cell becomes more positive. Leads to Threshold -- About -55mV. Threshold-->all Na+ gates open-->Na+ rushes in-->Action potential is reached -- usually +30mv. |
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Term
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Definition
Closer to equilibrium concentrations. 3 extracellular Na+ for every 2 intracellular K+. |
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Term
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Definition
Re-establishment of resting potential after firing. AP-->All Na+ gates closed and all K+ gates open-->K+rapidly diffuses out of cell-->inside of cell becomes more negative-->K+ gates closed-->Na+/K+ pumps re-establish resting potential. |
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Term
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Definition
During repolarization. Membrane can become more negative than resting potential. |
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Term
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Definition
The concentration of solutes (K, Na, etc.) |
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Term
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Definition
Difference in electrical charge between inside the cell and outside. |
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Term
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Definition
Synapses that use acetylcholine |
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Term
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Definition
Refers to the neuron that is firing |
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Term
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Definition
Refers to the neuron receiving the charge |
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Term
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Definition
Membrane bound compartments containing neurotransmitters. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential. Hyperpolarization of postsynaptic neuron as a result of opening of ligand-gated ion channel that is selectively permeable K+ or Cl- only |
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Term
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Definition
Excitatory postsynaptic potential. Depolarization, membrane potential is brought closer to action potential. Na+ gates and K+ gates are activated. |
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Term
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Definition
Combination of IPSP or EPSP to either bring closer or farther away from threshold |
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Term
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Definition
Shifts in membrane potential |
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Term
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Definition
Bind to Cl- gates lowering the charge farther from threshold |
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Term
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Definition
Relatively short chain of amino acids that serve as a neurotransmitter. Mediates perception of pain, involves endorphins. |
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Term
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Definition
Signal transduction. Part of metabotropic receptors. |
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Term
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Definition
Cyclic AMP
Part of metabotropic receptor. Neurotransmitter-receptor complex activates a G protein which in turn activates adenylyl cyclase, an enzyme that converts ATP to cAMP. cAMP activates protein kinase A, which phosphorylates specific ion channel proteins in the postsynaptic membrane, causing them to open or close. Because of the amplifying effect of the signal transduction pathway, the binding of neurotransmitter molecule to a metabotropic receptor can open or close many channels. |
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Term
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Definition
Used in active transport. K+ and Na+ pumps |
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Term
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Definition
Gamma-aminobutyric acid, IPSP, amino acid neurotransmitter. Binding of GABA to receptors in postsynaptic cells increases membrane permeability to Cl-, resulting in an IPSP. |
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Term
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Definition
Biogenic anine, neurotransmitter. Made from trryptophan, affect sleep, mood, attention and learning |
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Term
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Definition
Class of drugs that inhibits a response to adrenaline |
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Term
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Definition
Ligand-gated ion channel. Transmembrane protein that opens or closes in response to a signaling molecule (ligand/neurotransmitter) allowing flow of specific ions. |
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Term
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Definition
Activates a signal transduction pathway in the postsynaptic cell involving a second messenger |
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Term
Ligand regulated channels/gates |
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Definition
Gates on postsynaptic neuron that are regulated by neurotransmitters excreted by presynaptic neuron |
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Term
Voltage regulated channels/gates |
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Definition
Propagation of action potential from presynaptic to postsynaptic uses voltage |
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Term
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Definition
Skeletal muscle is made up of muscle fibers. The muscle fibers are made up of myofibrils. Myofibrils are made up of thin filaments (actin) and thick filaments (myosin)
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Term
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Definition
Sliding of the actin (thin filaments) towards the M lines and the myosin (thick filaments) towards the Z line |
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Term
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Definition
Sections of myofibrils. Made of thick filaments, myosin and thin filaments actin. The borders of the sarcomere are lined up in adjacent myofibrils. Thin filaments are attached at the Z lines and project toward the center of the sarcomere while the thick filaments are attached at the M lines centered in the sarcomere. |
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Term
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Definition
Calcium concentrations are much lower inside the cell. Arrival of an action potential at a synaptic terminal depolarizes the plasma membrane, opening voltage-gated calcium channels. Ca2+ concentration rises in synapse, causing the synaptic vesicles to fuse with the terminal membrane, releasing the neurotransmitters. |
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Term
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Definition
Myosin head can bind ATP and hydrolyze it to ADP and inorganic phosphate. Hydrolysis of ATP converts myosin to a high-energy form. This form of myosin binds to actin forms a cross-bridge, and pulls the thin filament towards the center of sarcomere. The cross-bridge is broken when a new molecule of ATP binds to the myosin head. |
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Term
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Definition
Transfer of a phosphate group from creatine phosphate to ADP in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction synthesizes additional ATP. |
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Definition
The site of where motor neurons synapse with skeletal muscle cells. |
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Definition
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Definition
Oxygen storing, pigmented protein in muscle cells. |
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