C=O-H (Aldehyde)

C-O (Ketone)

convection of molten rock mantle.

movement of crust

earliest fossil evidence: 3.5 billion years

earliest carbon isotope evidence: 3.8 billion years

nucleus

regulation of expression of genes

symbiotic relationship of being able to use oxygen as an electron acceptor for energy-producing reactions

they both have their own DNA and ribosomes

Bacteria

Archaea

Eukarya

sugars

amino acids

nucleotides

sugars - polysaccharides

amino acids - proteins

nucleotides - nucleic acids

condensation

 water is released (dehydration synthesis)

alpha-glucose (1-4 linkage)

ring form storage polysaccharides

unbranched alpha glucose/ branched form

found in plants

alpha glucose 

highly branched

found in animal cells

beta glucose 1-4 linkage

linear strand storage polysaccharide

chitin - exoskeleton of insects and crustaceans

peptidoglycan - tough, flexible bacterial cell wall

4 carbons, 1 NH₃⁺ 

polar

hydrophilic

4 carbons, 3 nitrogens

positively charged

polar

hydrophilic

carboxyl group

negative charged

acidic

polar

Hydrophilic

Hydroxyl group

no charge

polar

less hydrophobic

sulfhydryl group

polar

less hydrophobic

disulfide bonds - form molecular staples

benzene group

non-polar

hydrophobic

isobutyl group

non-polar

hydrophobic

catalyst

lower activation energy

5' to 3' strands with antiparallel opposing strands

hydrogen bonded in between

nucleotide subunits have ribose

uridine is substituted for thymidine

single stranded molecule

RNA loop back on itself to form internal self base-paired structures

for example transfer RNA

RNA as enzymes

when RNA played the roles of DNA and proteins

water insoluble hydrocarbon

fats, phospholipids, cholesterol

when fatty acids roll up into small balls with hydrophobic parts inside and hydrophilic parts outside

function as detergents to solubilize fats and oils

polyunsaturated fatty acids are essential for mammals because that cannot be by them

omega-6 and omega-3

useds as the fatty acid in certain phospholipids

can be hydrolyzed to generate prostaglandins

mediate blood clotting and inflammation

omega-6: produces clotting and inflammation

omega-3: the opposite effect

2 fatty acid chains and 1 phosphate stubstituent

amphipathic molecule

spontaneously form bilayers

planar bilayers due to tubular shape

not energetically favored so close to form hollow vesicles

2-D

diffuse in the plane of the membrane

melt or freeze depending on temperature

fluid-mosaic model for structure of biological membrane in 1972

proposed alpha-helix hydrophobic sequences would traverse the lipid bilayer

traverse the lipid bilayer

hydrophobic side go into hydrophobic interior of lipid bilayer

about 20 amino acids from the alpha-helix in lipid

support Singer-Nicholson model

showed that membranes have a smooth surface(lipid bilayer) studded with bumps(membrane proteins)

even distribution of solute molecules throughout  the solvent

solute moves across membrane

the flow of water across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of low concentration to high concentration.

results in equilibrium of concentration of free water molecules

outside more concentrated in solute

water flows out of cell and cell shrinks

inside of cell more concentrated in solute

water flows into cell and cell lysis (bursts)

inside and outside concentration of solutes is equal

cell stays same.

hydrophobic molecules

small uncharged polar molecules

large polar molecules (sugars)

ions

amino acids

ATP- dependent powered pumps

transporters that move solute against a concentration gradient

high concentration of Na⁺ outside of cell sometimes leak inside.

the pump moves them back out

3 Na⁺ ions move out of the cell and 2 K⁺ ions move into the cell.