1. The cell must be able to yield ALL cell types that is characteristic of an adult.

2. the cell must be able to direct full development..it must have the INSTRUCTION neccessary for proper development to form a fully forme Adult 

Occurs by way of maternal effect genes-also known as egg polarity genes..eg.BICOID GENE(bicoid is the mutant phenotype)

If BICOID GENE is mutated or deleted, the fly develops two TAIL ENDS(that is the fly lack Anterior end) A Mutation in BICOID GENE results in TWO TAIL ends. 

refers to the establishment of precise Spatial Relationship of parts during development eg. tetrapod limbs.

- crucial is the establisment of HEAD(anterior) and TAIL( posterior) in fruit fly.

Precise-pattern-parts-formation

The BICOID gene is neccessary for proper development of the anterior and posterior parts in drosophila

-Occurs by a way of Concentration gradient.

-one side of the zygote(LOCALIZED) has Maternal mRNA for the Bicoid protein.

-cell that have the Maternal mRNA will express the BICOID protein-Egg polarity gene

-Critical to the development of drosophila 

If the BICOID GENE is UNIFORMED, then the developing fruit fly will have 2 ANTERIOR ENDS. If the Bicoid gene is Mutated, then the organims forms TWO POSTERIOR ENDS

-The fruit fly will have two tails--it will have leg developing where antennae should develop. 

GIVE THE CORRECT SEGMENTATION IN DROSOPHILA

Head Region? Thorax Region? Abdominen Region? What genes are responsible for the segmentation?

HEAD REGION = 3 Segments=Antennae

THORAX REGION = 3 segments =Wings

ABDOMINEN REGION = 8 segments 

Segment polarity genes are responsible for setting up these segments under the control of the BICOID genes. 

-Maps out the segments in 7 pairs (14 segments total).

- Mutation here result in the lost of either the ODD or EVEN segments of the developing drosophila.

-if a drosophila was missing a leg, it's because of the pair rule genes. 

-Under the control of the pair rule genes

-set up the anterior and posterior axis of EACH segment 

-14 Segments each properly arranged by the segment polarity genes in terms of anterior and posterior axis. 

- The mutant phenotype has a MIRROR IMAGE(instead of getting anteior the right way, you get the posterior end)

Master regulatory gene that encode transcription factors for the expression of genes involved in body parts production-that is the "specify what goes where among the 14 segments".

-body parts - eg. Bicoid is hometic gene

- can take segments and form alternative body parts 

are DNA-that encode proteins

- protein of 60 amino acids 

180 bp of DNA nucleotides

-master regulatory gene 

Programmed cell death

-essential for normal development in humans

-can be considered as evolutionary adaptation for normal development

-In humans cell regress-NO WEBBING

-in Ducks webbed feet is an adapation for swimming

(ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY)

COMMUNITIES 

4.6 billion years according to evidence from chemistry, geology, and physics

We can 1. use the thick layers of Sedimentary Rock 2.  RadioIsotope Dating(carbon 12) 

proposed the geological principle of gradualism

Gradualism- said that PROFOUND changes result from SLOW but continues process.

Hutton=gradualism=SLOW=geology=Rocky mountains= 

Proposed that process are UNIFORM

. Building and Erosion balances out(EVEN)

Lyell=Balance+Building+ Erosion 

proposed that the history of the Earth is recorded in fossils.

Paleontology-Fossils-French-Recod of Earth's History 

Linnarean Hierachy

King  phillip   Cork Ordered Fresh Green Salads

kingdom phylum class order family genus species

animalia chordata mamalia primate homindae homo sapiens

Girraff's long neck is because of "Felt Needs"

posited that EVOLUTION OCCURS

ADAPTATION OCCURS 

-proposed SPONTANEOUS GENERATION(before pasteur's experiment)

- Population is the smallest unit evolution can occur in

       p = frequency of the dominant allele (A)

q = frequency of the recessive allele (a)

p + q = 1

p = 1 - q

      q = 1 - p

 2pq is the frequency of people with genotype (Aa) in a population.

p² is the frequency of people with genotype (AA) in a population

q² is the frequency of people with genotype (aa) in a population

q² is the frequency of people with genotype (aa) in a population

-proposed that Population is held in check by minimum resources, diseases and plague.

-Population Inreases EXPONENTIALLY(2-4-8-16-32) but resources are LIMITED.

- Food grows SLOWER or ARITHMATICALLY than Population

Wrote the "Origin of Species" in 1859

-was puzzled by geographical distribution of animals

-ideas explained by DESCENT OF MODIFICATION 

-Animals from the same continent looked alike

-Island Distribution of mockingbird

-mocking bird on the same island sang different but identical to other mockingbirds on different islands.

- 

"natural kind"

a group of population whose individuals can INTERBREED 

Says that all tetrapods Evolved from a single Ancestor.

-ALL FORM LIMBS

all vertebrates share a common ancestor

-Genetic code suggest that All organism share a common ancestor 

1 Molecular Biology

2. Paleontology

3. Comparative Embryology 

is a process in which individuals differ in SURVIVAL and REPRODUCTION, this different results from the possession of different HERITABLE forms of TRAIT such that one form of the trait(Camoflage) comes to predominate and the other(light Colored Bird) goes extinct.

Out of N.S relies heavily on the particular ENVIRONMENT. 

-One hertible gene dominate..Other is Lost 

1. Trait Variation

2. Trait heritabilty

3. Consistent relationship between the Trait form and SURVIVAL/REPRODUCTION 

.If in fact the trait is heritable, the other form of the trait will become rear and rearer from generation to generation. 

What happens if any of the 3 formal requirement(Trait viability, Trait heritability and consist Survival and Reproduction).  of Natural Selection does not occur?

 Natural Selection WILL NOT OCCUR

The present of all 3 is required for Natural Selection to occur. 

Individuals do NOT evolve..Populations evolve.

Dr. Bledsoe does NOT evolve. The Whole America evolve

Defined irrespective of those who produce. It's define with respect to the Environmental context

ex. In an environment where the camoflage bird blends in within the Environment, it is less preyed upon than the COLORED BIRD. Hence Camoflage bird lives to reproduce than colored bird(FITNESS-in Environmental Context). 

1. Mutation

2. Genetic Recombination 

1. NO NATURAL SELECTION

2. NO MUTATION

3. INFINITE or LARGE POPULATION

4. NO GENE FLOW between population

5. MATING IS COMPLETELY RANDOM 

6.Everyone produces the same number of offspring 

refers to the movement of genes between population.

occurs when fertile individuals disperse.

If you move genes around, it changes the alleles frequencies in the population.

Think about flowing or migration.  If something flows, it moves around. Hence movement of genes around in a population 

Ultimate source of Evolution 

It's very very low

they are rarely beneficical

occurs at a rate of 10^-4 and 10^-8 per locus 

But if it happens, it changes the allele frequencies 

its breeding between closely related partners.

If you white and white breed you get white. Hence it increases the frequency of the Homozygotes 

Like mates with Like

No one is forced to mate with another person so its like mate with like.

If you do that then you increase the frequency of the homogyzotes. Homo-same.. Black and Black = Black

this increase freq of Homozygotes (AA or aa). 

Like mates with dislike

White and Black = light skin caucasian'

Hence it increase the frequenciy of the Heterozygotes (Aa) 

This changes the genotypes NOT the ALLELES..because we are just shuffling alleles. 

recombine existing alleles into new combinations.

individuals AT ONE END of the variation spectrum have higher fitness

-changes the mean trait value

- reduces variation within the population

-evolutional change occurs. 

individuals in at and around the mean trait value have higher fitness(people in the middle have high fitness)

-NO CHANGE IN MEAN trait value (because its just stablizing the mean value NO CHANGE 

-selection occurs(look at its name)

-NO EVOLUTIONAL CHANGE OCCURS. 

eg. Birth weight in humans) 

 people in the middle near the mean trait value have lower fitness.

-NO CHANGE IN MEAN TRAIT VALUE

-EVOLUTION DOES OCCUR 

-Reduced variation

-Each adapts to different Environment 

-Each pop has its own mean trait value. 

increase the ability to obtain mates

-via ways of competition

-males are "choosy" of who to mate with. 

eg. American Robin and Peacock tails. 

the production of two or more species from a single ancestor

-its usually a gradual process

-It takes a long time for another species to form 

-speciation distibutes the attributes of utility(adaptation) to daughter species(because adapation is heritable)

extinction can decrease speciation but speciation outlast extinction. 

Ernest Mayr define species as a group of conspecific (same) species who have the potential to interbreed sexually but cannot interbreed with other groups.

"members of one species are Reproductively ISOLATED from members of another species"

-this defintion is lame because it does not apply to species that produces ASEXUALLY. 

uses anatomcial differences to define species

-this definition is the most practical definition 

It results from 

1 Integrated Complexes of Genes

2. Integrated Sets of Adapatation 

-It provides explanation for the morphological species concepts 

Natural selection yeilds adapatation

-as a result, members of a given species are adapted well to their environment.

however, HYBRIDS are at a great selective disadvantage.(they don't do well at ALL)

a mechanism that prevents hybridization between species

Prezygotic(Before the Zygote forms)

Postzygotic(After fertilization)

-If either of these mechanism fail, Hybrids can be successful. 

may prevent individuals of different species or population from interbreeding 

-occurs before fertilization

via

1. Hibitat Isolation (living in Ghana and America)

2.Behavior (acting wise and Stupid)

3. Time (mating at Day or at Night)

4.Incompatible Reproductive Anatomy (different shapes and sizes in the reproductive organs

5. Gametic Incompatibility(breeding may occur but sperm cannot fertilize the egg)

    ` 

-Mating will take place but Zygote will DIE

Occurs after prezygotic barriers 

1. Low Hybrid Viability (hybrids may die during developnment or may fail to mature normally and CANNOT mate as adults)

2. Hybrid Fertility(hybrids Cannot reproduce)

Basically hybrids will DIE, INFERTILE 

Evolutional change within lineages-a species can evolve WITHOUT SPLITTING into new ones

  - one species evolves into another without any splitting of the phylogenetic tree

-Adapative mechanism 

-An acestor has EVOLVED through gradual change without splitting 

-NOT A FORM OF SPECIATION-because it did not increase the species size 

eg. Marine Bivale and layers of sedimentary rock 

Cladogenesis is evolution that results in the splitting of a lineage.

-results in successful speciation events

-Clads V 

Splitting via Geographic location

-If the population is geographically isolated, each of the population can evolve differently from the others.

that is  They can evolve independently from each other. 

results in a new colony formed by long distances dispersal

-The founding population is small and experiences the Founder EFfect-means that the new population is genetically unrepresentative of the parental population

-new colony is at risk of entinction 

Peripatric Speciation

a SMALL population isolated at the Edge of a larger population

-located at the end of a geographical range 

-Conditons are usually difficult at this range(edge)

-predicts Rapid speciation than Dumbell Model

speciation is a more likely result of the geographic isolation because genetic drift acts more quickly in small populations

is the process by which attributes of utility arise in a population

-adapatation occurs via natural selection 

-gradual process can yeld major change in attributes in a long time. 

pepper moth color change is NOT a complex form of adaptation.

-COMPLEX FORM of adaptation evolve GRADUALLY

PRODUCTS of adaptation- attributes, MUST be of Utility in a given environmental context. 

is a form of adapation that is excluded from adapatation.

-also known as exaptations

-Example-The thumb is pre-adapted to be used as a utility in communication. 

-is the study of the nature of origin and causes of biological diversity-

-systematics seeks to explain how diversity has been generated and exactly when and what was involved and how does it explain the remarkable diversity on Earth. 

method of putting together a phylogeny(a tree) using the concept of special similarity

-it requires information of attributes or characters(trait)

-tries to retrace the past using phylogenty(tree) and attributes and similarity 

The Tree of Life then represents the phylogeny of organisms, i. e., the history of organismal lineages as they change through time. It implies that different species arise from previous forms via descent, and that all organisms, from the smallest microbe to the largest plants and vertebrates, are connected by the passage of genes along the branches of the phylogenetic tree that links all of Life

-pattern of speciation that give rise to diversity depicted in a TREE FORM-

-Operates by way of detective work using DNA and DNA Hybridization. 

is the study of evolution of complex adapatation

-the origin of major groups of organisms

-patterns of diversity and extinction

-history of life as revealed by the fossil record

-this occurs are a result of speciation

-These process are directly related to SPECIATION