Kingdom Fungi

• heterotrophic
• eukaryotic
• cell wall of chitin
• multicellular and unicellular (yeasts)
• asexual and sexual reproduction
• terrestrial and aquatic

filaments of multicellular fungus

[image]

body of the fungus

consists of hyphae

multinucleate

continuous cytoplasm

aseptae

saprobes

feed on dead organic matter

undergo extracellular digestion

release hydrolytic exoenzymes

antibiotics

symbiotic fungi in agriculture

decomposers necessary for the cycling of matter in the biosphere

athlete's foot

nail fungus

ringworm

fungal pneumonia

aspergillous- respiratory disease

food poisoning

vaginal yeast infection

plant diseases

Chytridiomycota

Ascomycota

Basidiomycota

• Chitrids
• unicellular or coenocytic
• flagellated gametes and spores
• mostly aquatic
• Allomyces

• multicellular
• coenocytic & aseptae
• sexual and asexual
• zygosporangia and sporangia
• only diploid for a short phase during karyogamy
• Rhizopus- black bread mold
• Pilobolus- dung cannon

• specialized sexual reproductive structures
• formed when the cytoplasm of adjacent cells fuse
• contain several haploid nuclei

process by which cytoplasm of adjacent cells fuse

• haploid spores by which zygomycetes can undergo asexual reproduction

• produce asci
• unicellular and multicellular
• destructive pathogens of plants
• Peziza
• Penicillium
• Saccharomyces
• asperilligus

multicellular ascomycota

fungi with septate hyphae

specialized structures capable of asexual reproduction

within each conidiophore are haploid spores called conidia

• multicellular
• septae
• produce basidia
• mushroom, rusts, smuts
• Rhodotorula
• Coprinus
• sexual reproduction not common

• not a single organism
• mutualistic association of a fungus and an alga/cyanobacterium
• fungus receives photosynthetic nutrients
• photosynthetic organism receives better environment
• terrestrial
• important colonizers in ecological succession
• convert inorganic matter to organic
• nitrogen-fixing algae
• crustose, foliose, fruticose

• eukaryotic
• photoautotrophic
• muticellular
• non-motile
• mainly terrestrial
• cell wall of cellulose
• chlorophyll a,b carotenes
• sexual/asexual
• alternation of generations (all)
• hetersporous/homosporous

alternate between a multicellular haploid gametophyte generation and diploid sporophyte generation

• gametophyte stage gives rise to gametes through mitosis
• sporophyte generation gives rise to haploid spores through meiosis

produce megaspores

• large, develops into f. gametophyte

microspores

• small, develops into m. gametophyte

xylem: transports water and minerals

phloem: transports organic compounds

• 475 mya- first plants were nonvascular
• 450 mya- seedless vascular dominated
• 360 mya- gymnosperms
• 120 mya- angiosperms

today 7% of plants are nonvascular

of the 93% vascular, 90% are angiosperms

Nonvascular

• gametophyte dominant
• sporophyte dependednt on gametophyte

Seedless Vascular

• sporophyte dominant
• gametophyte independent

Seed plants

• sporophyte dominant
• gametophyte dependent on sporophyte

• lack lignin-coated vascular tissue= true roots, leaves, stems
• gametohphyte dominant
• sexual reproduction involves spores
• flagellated sperm- require moist envmt.
• limited size
• play roles in soil erosion
• production of organic matter, oxygen

Hepatophyta

Bryophyta

• "liver-like plants"
• Liverworts
• flattened, leafy (thalloid) gametophyte
• rhizoids
• asexual and sexual
• Marchantia

fragmentation:

a portion of the gametophyte plant becomes separated and develops into a new gametophyte plant

gemma:

are produced in gemma cups of the gametophyte plant, each of which can develop into a new plant

antheridium: produces sperm by mitosis

archegonium: produces eggs by mitosis

fuse to produce zygote> meiosis> haploid spore> germinate into gametophyte plant

• leaf-like, stem-like, root-like parts
• separate male and female plants
• asexual- fragmentation
• sexual- identical to hepatophyta (antheridium and archegonium)
• Mnium
• terrestrial
• most successful nonvascular

• have lignin-coated vascular tissue
• have an advantage over nonvascular because they can grow taller
• are also limited to moist environments because they produce motile sperm
• sporophyte dominant
• use spores not seeds
• asexual- rhizomes
• sexual- similar to nonvascular plants except the period of time in sporo/gametophyte
• most homosporous

Lycophyta

Pterophyta

• club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts
• leaves called microphylls
• strobili
• sometimes exist as epiphytes on larger trees
• Lycopodium
• Selaginella

micro: leaves that are small and only have one vein

mega: large leaves that have a network of veins

• ferns and lillies
• most have megaphylls
• some have strobili
• some have sori
• Equisetum

pterophyte

microphyll in whorls

ribbed stems that contain silica

spores produced in strobili

pterophytes

have true stems but no true stems or roots

ferns

• largest group of pterophytes
• long leaves called fronds
• each frond has many leaflets
• spores produced in sori

• vascular plants
• produce naked seeds= not enclosed in flower-derived fruit
• conifers are second most successful plant
• sporophyte dominant
• gametophyte is dependent
• heterosporous
• sexual and asexual

cycadophyta

gingkophyta

coniferophyta

• palm-like, evergreen leaves
• unbranched trunk
• cone-like reproductive structures
• flagellated sperm
• dioecious- female and male plants
• tropical

• fan-like leaves
• deciduous- shed in autumn
• flagellated sperm
• temperate
• fleshy seeds that resemble fruit, but are not derived from flowers

• monoecious- female and male parts
• needle-like of scale-like leaves
• produce cones
• evergreen
• woody trees and shrubs
• pines, junipers, yews, spruces, cypresses, sequoias, redwoods
• asexual reproduction rare

Production of Pollen Grain

Sexual Reproduction in Conifers

2n microsporocytes>

meiosis>

 n microspores>

mitosis>

4-cell winged structure=pollen grain

pollen grain is male gametophyte

Production of the Female Gametophyte

Sexual Reproduction in Conifers

within megasporangia of female cone

megasporocyte>

meiosis>

haploid megaspores>

mitosis mult. times>

multicellular haploid structure>

differentiate to produce archegonium>

mitosis>

egg cell

multicellular structure is the female gametophyte

Pollination, Fertilization, and Seed Formation

Sexual Reproduction in Conifers

• pollination usually by wind
• usually takes three years
• seeds are formed within the female cone
• at the end of the third year the female cone opens up and releases seeds

Conifer Seeds

winged

once they land, they can germinate into a new sporophyte plant

consists of diploid embryo, remainder of female gametophyte and seed coat

sporophyte is diploid

gametophyte is haploid

• flowering plants
• seed vascular
• seeds are enclosed in flower derived fruit
• flowers/fruit give angiosperms the adaptive advantage
• sporophyte dominant
• heterosporous
• petals and sepals surround sex structures
• monoecious, bisexual, dioecious plants

Female structures= carpel

stigma, style, ovary

Male structures= stamen

anther, filament

contain both male and female structures in one flower

monoecious

Production of Pollen Grain

Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms

within microsporangia of the anther

2n microsporocytes>

meiosis>

haploid microspores>

mitosis>

2-cell structure with protective coat=pollen grain

pollen grain is male gametophyte

Production of Female Gametophyte

Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms

within the megasporangia of ovary

2n megasporocytes>

meiosis>

n megaspores>

several mitotic divisions>

microscopic multicellular embryo sac

embryo sac= female gametophyte

one of the cells is the egg, also 2 polar nuclei

Pollination, Double Fertilization, Seed Formation

Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms

pollen grain lands on stigma of flower

animal pollinators like insects

2 sperm cells develop and move down into ovary

double fertilization

one sperm fertilizes egg- zygote

the other fertilizes the nuclei- multicellular triploid endosperm= food source

fruit consists of seed, ripened ovary, and other flower parts surrounding the seed

embryo (2n), endosperm (3n), and seed coat (2n)

• contain one cotyledon (seed leaf)
• multiples of three flowers
• parallel venation
• fibrous root system
• adventitious- roots develop from stems rather than radicle
• vascular bundles arranged near the central pith in root
• ring of vascular bundles surrounded by endodermis in root
• vascular bundles scattered in stem
• monosulcate pollen- one opening
• fleshy roots and stems

• 2 cotyledons
• reticulate venation
• multiples of 4, or 5flowers
• taproot system
• roots develop from radicle
• one vascular bundle surrounded by endodermis in root
• vascular bundles arranged in ring in stem
• triclopate pollen- 3 openings
• woody stems and roots

Examples of Anthophyta

Angiosperms

Viburnum

Forsythia

snake plants

Nacissus (daffodil)

Lilium

seed+ pericarp

Pericarp

exocarp, mesocarp, endocarp

fleshy simple fruit- one  ovary

berry, pome, drupe

dry simple fruit- one ovary

capsule, legume, achene, caryopsis, samara, nut

aggregate fruit- multiple ovaries, 1 flower

multiple fruit- mult. ovaries of multiple flowers

stems+leaves=shoot system

roots

anchor plant

absorb water and minerals

underground root systems: taproot and fibrous root

develops from the embryonic root

one or more primary roots give rise to a number of secondary roots

extend deep into the soil

eudicots mostly

all roots are fairly the same size

also called aventitous because they arise from unusual locations, as opposed to the embryonic root

prop roots

storage roots

pneumatophores

strangling aerial roots

buttress roots

adventitious aerial roots that help anchor the plant

ex. corn

specialized roots for storage of food and/or water

ex. beets, carrots, radishes, and sweet potatoes

above ground

adventitious

specialized for gas exchange

help plants survive in oxygen poor environments such as swamps

found in bald cypress trees and mangroves

sent down by the host tree by a tree whose seeds germinated aboveground on the host tree

usually end up killing the host tree

aboveground

alternating nodes and internodes

terminal bud (tip) and axillary buds (sides)

functions: support, transport, production of leaves and reproductive structures, photosynthesis

rhizomes

bulbs

stolons

tubers

horizontal stems that grow just below the soil

can give rise to new shoot systems

(asexual reproduction)

some storage

ex. ginger, iris

vertical shoot systems that grow just below the soil

storage

asexual reproduction- bulbs germinate into new plants

ex. onion

horizontal stems that grow on the surface of the soil

asexual reproduction

a new plant can grow at every node of a stolon

ex. strawberry, Kentucky bluegrass

specialized for food/water storage

asexual reproduction

ex. potato, Jerusalem artichoke

aboveground

photosynthetic

consists of blade, petiole

simple: one blade and one petiole

petiole is directly attached to node

compound: several leaflets attached to single petiole

petiole attaches to node of stem

doubly compound: several leaflets which have their own leaflets

only one main petiole

palmate: leaflets, lobes, or veins radiate outward from single origin

pinnate: leaf parts arise at different points from a central axis (bird feather)

parallel: veins originate from the base of the leaf and extend to the edges without branching

alternate: one leaf arises from each node

alternating sides of the stem

opposite: two leaves arise on opposite sides of same node

whorled: multiple leaves originate from the same node

tendrils

spines

reproductive leaves

bracts

support the stems

pea plant

spines

protection

cactus leaves

have the ability to produce plantlets asexually

can germinate into new plants when it falls off the leaf

colorful, petal-like structures

poinsettia

dermal tissue

vascular tissue

ground tissue

epidermis

single layer of tightly packed cells

protection

also absorption and secretion

epidermis is replaced by the periderm

transport

present in roots, stems, leaves

xylem and phloem

xylem: water and minerals

root>plant

phloem: organic compounds

leaf>plant

any other tissue than dermal and vascular

roots, stem, leaves

cortex: area between epidermis and vascular bundles

pith: ground tissue internal to vascular bundles

functions: photosynthesis, storage, support

parenchyma

collenchyma

schlerenchyma

conducting cells of xylem

conducting cells of phloem

living

thin flexible primary cell wall

no secondary cell wall

photosynthesis and storage

make up fleshy parts of fruits

ground tissue of young plant organs

cuboidal shaped

living

only primary cell wall

thick but flexible

support for leaf petioles and young stems

inflexible

dead at maturity

lignified thick cell walls

support in trunk

elongated

dead

conducting water

tracheids are long

vessel elements are short

elongated

living

transport of organic matter- carbs

sieve-tube elements

companion cells-non conducting

determinate: stop once they reach maturity

indeterminate: grow as long as they live

makes plants capable of indeterminate growth

embryonic cells that continuously divide

can differentiate into any type of plant tissue

apical meristem: tip, primary growth- increases length

lateral meristem- along length of stem

secondary growth- girth

secondary growth

lateral meristem

ring forms around the stem producing secondary xylem interior to it and secondary phloem exterior to it

annual rings in tree trunk

cork cambium+cork

lateral meristem

replaces epidermis of young stems to become woody stems

cork cambium: exterior to secondary phloem

produces the cork

everything outside vascular cambium is called bark

blackberry

raspberry

strawberry

pineapple

fig

mulberry

hazelnut

chesnut

oak

maple

ash

wheat

barley

corn

peanut

bean

peas

sunflower

dandelion

okra

lily

orchid

poppy

peach

plum

almonds

apricot

cherry

walnut

nectarine

apple

pear

modified berry

orange

grapefruit

tangerine

false berry

cucumber

melon

squash

watermelon

grapes

egg plant

tomato