1800s-2 kingdoms-

Plants & Animals

2nd eukaryotic kingdom concept

1960s-5 kingdoms-

Animals, Plants, Fungi, Protista,

& Monera-->prokaryotes

3rd & latest eukaryotic kingdom

concept

1990s- 3 "domains" & 5 eukaryotic 

"supergroups"

Eukaryotic Supergroups: 

Excavata

-many have an "excavated" groove

on the cell

Eukaryotic Supergroups:

Chromaveolata

-includes the "golden algae"

Eukaryotic Supergroups:

Rhizaria

Eukaryotic Supergroups:

Archaeplastida

-red and green algae and plants,

with "ancient plastids"

Eukaryotic Supergroups:

Unikonta

-fungi, animals, slim, molds, 

others w/ single plasteria flagellen

w/ out mitochondria

-but may have had mitochondria at some point,

remnants of mitochondria are found

-Archaezoa

-Giardin Diplonomads

-Trichomonas Trichomonads

-Microsporidia

the engulfment of a bacterium by another

free living organism

[image]

the product of a primary endosymbiosis is itself 

engulfed and retained by another 

free living eukaryote

a monophyletic group of primarily single-celled eukaryotes that have adopted extremely diverse modes of nutrition

Dinoflagellates

(Alveolates)

-a large group of flagellate protists

-common organisms in all types of aquatic ecosystems

-roughly half the species in the group are photosynthetic & the other half is exclusively heterotrophic and feeds via osmotrophy and phagotrophy

-red tide

Zooxanthellae

(Dinoflagella)

-endosymbionts (any organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism) of marine animals and protozoa, and a few forms are parasitic 

-most are autotrophs and provide the host coral with energy in the form of glucose, glycerol and amino acids

Apicomplexans

(Alveolates)

-kingdom within Alveolata

-large group of protists, most possess a unique organelle called apicoplast and an apical complex structure involved in penetrating a host's cell

-unicellular, spore-forming, and exclusively parasites of animals

-ex. Plasmodium (malaria)

Ciliates

(Alveolates)

-kingdom within Alveolata

-large group of protozoans characterized by the presence of hair-like organelles called cilia

-feeding, waste removal, and water balance

-common to almost everywhere there is water

-mainly dynamic predators that feed on smaller organisms such as bacteria and algae

Euglenozoans

(Excavates)

-a monophyletic group consisting of single-celled flagellates with very different modes of nutrition including predation, osmotrophy, parasitism, and photoautotrophy

-they include a variety of common free-living species, as well as a few important parasites, some of which infect humans

Kinetoplastids

(Euglenozoans)

-a group of single-cell flagellate protozoa, including a number of parasites responsible for serious diseases in humans and other animals

-their major distinguishing feature is the presence of kinetoplast, a DNA-containing granule within the single mitochondrian associated with the base of the flagella

-ex. Trypanosoma, the causal agent of African Sleeping Sickness

Euglena

(Euglenozoans)

-unicellular protists containing over 1,000 species so far discovered

-can both eat food as animals by heterotrophy and photosynthesize like plants by autotrophy

-many euglena are considered mixotrophs:

autotrophs in the sunlight and heterotrophs in the dark

-derived from green algae

-specifically charophytes

-a division of green algae

-archaeplastida

domain: eukaryota

kingdom: plantae

division: charophyta

-a division of green algae

domain: eukaryote

kingdom: plantae

division: chlorophyta

-a genus of green algae in the family characeae

kingdom: plantae

division: charophyta

-multicellular and superficially resemble land plants because of stem-like and leaf-like structures

-a genus of green algae in the family coleochaetaceae

kingdom: plantae

division: charophyta

-haploid, reproduce asexually and can be characterized by true multicellular organization

-produces spores by meiosis

-these meiospores develop into gametophytes

-both the spores and the resulting gametophyte are haploid, meanining they only have one set of homologous chromosomes

-the product of the fusion of two haploid gametes, its cells are diploid, comtaining two sets of chromosomes

-the haploid multicellular phase of plants and algae that undergo alteration of generations, with each of its cells containing only a single set of chromosomes

-gametophyte produces male or female gametes (or both), by mitosis

-an enclosure in which spores are formed

-can be a singel cell or can multicellular

-all plants, fungi, and many other lineages form sporangia at some point

-a haploid cell is a cell that contains one complete set of chromosomes

-gametes are haploid cells that are produced by meiosis

-the haploid number is the number of chrmosomes within the nucleus that constitutes one complete chrmosomal set

-a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes

-one set is donated from each parent

-the diploid number is the number of chromosomes in the cell

-all embryophytes (landplants) that do not have true vascular tissue, or non-vascular plants

-mosses, liverworts, hornworts

-a complex chemical compound most commonly derived from wood

-an integral part of the secondary cell walls of plants and algae

-small, soft plants classified in the bryophyta

-have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle, in which cells of the plant carry only a single set of genetic info

-small plants classified in the bryophyta

-have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle, in which cells of the plant carry only a single set of genetic info

-small plants classified in the bryophyta  

-have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle, in which cells of the plant carry only a single set of genetic info

-one of the most abundant bryophytes

-a genus of mosses commonly called peat moss

-a haploid structure or organ producing and containing male gametes (sperm)

-present in the gametophyte phase of flower plants like mosses and ferns

-a multicellular structure or organ of the gametophyte phase of certain plants, producing and containing the ovum or female gamete (eggs)

-water conducting plants that reproduce using spores (like fungi) instead of seeds

-fall into the following categories or phyla: psilophyta, lycophyta, phenophyta, and pteophyta, or ferns

-the initial cell formed when two gamete cells are joined by means of sexual reproduction

-a small opening in the surface of an ovule, through which the pollen tube penetrates, often visible as a small pore in the ripe seed

-a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat

-the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization

-a sporangium that produces spores that give rise to male gemetophytes

-produces only microspores

-a sporangium containing only large spores

-the pollen producing organ of a flower

-consists of a filament and an anther

-are most commonly two-lobed and are attached to the filament either at the base or in the middle portion

-typically contains four microsporangia

-the ovule producing part of a flower

-consists of the stigma, style, and ovary

-the receptive tip of a carpel in the gynoecium of a flower

-recieves pollen at pollination and it is on the stigma that the pollen grain germinates

-part of the femal reproductive organ of a flower

-located above or below or at the point of connection with the base of the petals

-a fruit is the ripened ovary, together with seeds, from one or more flowers

-modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts of a flower

-are often brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators

-literally means small egg

-in seed plants, the ovule is the structure that gives rise to and contains the female reproductive cells

-a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants)

-are green and lie directly under the petals

-when the flower is in bud, the sepals enclose adn protect the more delicate floral parts within

-the thickened part of a stem from which the flower organ grows

Radicle

(Seed)

-the first part of a seedling to emerge from the seed during the process of germination

Epicotyl

(Seed)

-the embryonic shoot above the cotyledons

-in most plants the epicotyl will develop into the leaves of the plant

Cotyledons

(Seed)

-a significant part of the embryo within the seed of a plant

-upon germination, the cotyledon may become the embryonic first leaves of a seedling

Hypocotyl

(Seed)

Endosperm

(Seed)

-the tissure produced inside the seeds of most flowering plants around the time of fertilization

-surrounds the embryo and provides nutrition in the form of starch

Coleoptile

(Seed)

-the pointed protective sheath covering the emerging shoot in monocotyledons such as oats and grasses

Coleorhiza

(Seed)

-in monocot seeds, the embryo's radicle and cotyledon are covered by a coleorhiza

-a group of seed-bearing plants that includes conifers, cycads, ginkgo, and gnetales

-seeds are unenclosed

-flowering, seed-producing plants

-the most diverse group of land plants

-differ from angiosperms because of flowers, endosperm within the seeds, and the production of fruits that contain seeds

-seeds enclosed during germination

-comprise those plants the produce seeds

-they are a subset of the embryophytes or land plants

-the oldest living vascular plant division at around 410 million years old

-reproduce by shedding spores

-club mosses are homosporous but spike-mosses and quillworts are heterosporous

-unique to angiosperms

-involves the joining of a female gametophyte (embryo sac) with two male gametes (sperm)

-one sperm unites with the egg to form the diploid zygote, from which the embryo develops 

-the other spermunites w/ the two nuclei in a single cell at the center of the embryo sac

-together these nucei form the triploid (3N) nucleus of the cell from which the endosperm develops

-animal dispersed

-wind/water/gravity dispersed

-gymnosperms dispersed by wind/gravity

-inconspicuos

-unisexual

-exserted stigmas

-often flower early

-very diverse

-anigiosperms animal dispersed, but can also be dispersed by wind, water, etc.

-showy/attractant- visual/olfactory (scent)

-reward- pollen/nectar/tissure

Shoot System

-anchoring

-absorption

-storage

-gas exchange 

-support

-photosynthesis

-storage

Terminal Bud

(Apical)

-the main area of growth in most plants

-its growth exhibits apical dominance inhibiting the growth of axillary buds

-buds that grow from the nodes which then become new stems

Blade

(Leaf)

Petiole

(Leaf)

the stalk by which a leaf is attached to a stem

an enlarged, somewhat straight to tapering plant root that grows vertically downward

extend horizontally from the primary root and serve to anchor the plant securely into the soil

-specialized aerial (aboveground) roots enable plants to breath air in habitats that have waterlogged soil

-may grow down from the stem, or up, from typical roots

-ex. mangroves

a tubular outgrowth of a trichoblast, a hair forming cell on the epidermis of a plant root

-a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf bases

-function as food storage organs during dormancy

-ex. onions

-various types of modified plant structures that are enlarged to store nutrients

-are used by plants to survive the winter or dry months and provide energy and nutrients for regrowth the next growing season

-are a means of asexual reproduction

-ex. potatoes

-modified stems for storage

-help plants grow horizontally

-ex. ginger

Petiole

-the small stalk attaching the leaf blade to the stem

-ex. celery

-a specialized stem, leaf, or petiole with a threadlike shape that is used by climbing plants for support and attachment, generally by twining around whatever it touches

-ex. thorns

-for protection

- a modified or specialized leaf 

-different and often brightly colored to attract pollinators

-xylem-h2o

-phloem-photosynthesis

-live at maturing priamry cell wall

-thin walled cells of the ground tissue

-"glue"-thick, glistening appearance of the walls of fresh tissues

-live at maturing primary cell wall

-supporting tissue in plants

-two kinds: fibres and sclereids

-secondary cell wall

-lignified

-"growing tip" responsible for primary growth

-its main function is to begin growth of new cells in youn seedlings at the tips of roots and shoots

-the source of all above-ground organs

-the shoot apical meristem is the site of most of the embryogenesis in flowering plants

-primordia of leaves, sepals, petals, stamens, and ovaries are initiated 

-unlike the shoot apical meristem, the root apical meristem produces cells in two dimensions

-it is covered by the root cap, which protects the apical meristem from rocks, dirt, and pathogens

-secondary meristems

-are involved in lateral growth

-young leaves, recently formed by the shoot apical meristem, located at the tip of a shoot

-section of tissue at tip of root 

-protects the apical meristem and allows root to dig through the soil as it grows

-one of the two types of transport tissue

-transports mostly water through the plant

-dead at maturity

-one of the two types of transport tissue

-transports mostly sugars through the plant

-alive at maturity

-a lateral meristem in the vascular tissue of plants

-the source of both the secondary xylem and secondary phloem 

-located between these tissure in the stem and the root

-a tissure found in many vascular plaants as part of the periderm

-a lateral meristem and is responsible for secondary growth that replaces the epidermis in roots and stems

-found in woody and many herbaceous dicots, gymnosperms, and some monocots, which usually lack secondary growth

-formed during secondary growth from vascular cambium

-found mostly in conifers and angiosperms

-grows inward, toward the pith

-formed during secondary growth from vascular cambium

-grows outward, expanding the size

-a substance found in vascular plants

-its two main function are nutrient storage and transport of nutrients through the stem, branches, leaves, and roots of the plant

-made up of soft, spongy parenchyma cells and encircled by a ring of xylem, and outside that, a ring of phloem

-located in the center of the stem in eudicots and in the center of the roots in monocots

-bark

-the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants

-where the apical meristem is located

-located closest to root cap

-middle part of the root

-area in plant roots where recently produced cells grow and elongate prior to differentiation

-region closest to stem

-where cells differentiate, and distinguish from each other

-some are destined to be typical parenchyma cells while others will mature to sclerenchyma cells

-helps plants stand up, especially ones w/out woody tissue

-main pressure of the cell contents against the cell walls

-determined by the water content of the vacuole, resulting from osmotic pressure

-the free diffusional space outside the plasma membrane

-interrupted by the Casparian strip in roots, air spaces between plant cells and the cuticle of the plant

-the inner side of the plasma membrane in which water (and low-molecular-weight solutes) can freely diffuse

Casparian Strip/Suberin

-a band of cell wall material in the radial and transverse walls of the endodermis

-impermeable 

-covers surface touching other cells 

-blocks apoplastic route

Mycorrhizae

-a symbiotic (generally mutualistic) association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant

-fungus takes sugars from plant

-the fungus colonizes the host plants' roots and helps plant get water & nutrients

-a type of mycorrhizae in which the fungus penetrates the cortical cells of the roots of a vascular plant

-85% of plant species have EM

-a symbiotic (generally mutualistic) association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant

-intracellularly

-"outside"

-formed between the roots of around 10% of plant families, mostly woody plants

-extracellularly

-a process similar to evaporation

-the loss of water vapor from parts of plants especially in leaves but also in stems, flowers, and roots

-cooling

-turgor

-CO2 diffusion

-occurs through stromata

-osmotic pressure within the cells of a root system that causes sap to rise through a plant stem to the leaves

-occurs in the xylem of some vascular plants when the soil moisture level is high either at night or when transpiration is low during the day

-the appearance of drops of xylem sap on the tips or edges of leaves of some vascular plant

-not dew

-water forced out of leaves