I. Asexual

II. Sexual

asexual, organism splits into 2, each half becoming a complete individual 

ex: amoebas, flatworms, sea stars: tore apart great barrier reef people cut them up ... bad

Asexual

hydra, filter feeder, buds off of a little version of its self

An asexual reproductive structure, as in yeast or a hydra, that consists of an outgrowth capable of developing into a new individual.

Asexual, modification of asexual production. Unfertilized egg grows into individual off spring. Same genes

Ex: arizona whip tale: males have been eliminated, save energy, clones, why change if environment does not

+Variation is key

+ lots of energy 

+Reproduction by the union of male and female gametes to form a zygote

male & female parts, do not want to mate with self variation is the goalk

ex: earthworms- both go away pregnant, everyone can reproduce with everyone

One breeding cycle every year

+breed in bad weather

+give birth in nice weather

+sperm cell is united with an egg cell external to the bodies of the reproducing individuals

ex: fish have lots of eggs & sperm because a lot of them are lost in water

Endometrium

FSH

(Follicle Stimulating Hormone)

+makes follicle to begin to make an egg

+ regulates the development, growth, pubertal maturation, and reproductive processes

In 

Females: triggers ovulation and corpus luteum development

Males: triggers production of testosterone 

+amount of LH production lowers

+ Corpus Luteum begins to lower production of estrogen or progesterone

+Endometrium wall begins to to fall off and thats menstration 

Corpus Luteum

+Used to be follicle

is a temporary endocrine structure in mammals, involved in production of progestogen, which is needed to maintain the endometrium.

+ zygote makes it to endometrium wall and is embedded 

+ HCG levels rise

+ Placenta

+lots of hormones are being produced at this time

+ once pregnant no more follicles are produced

+Karl Von Frisch (studied bees, Germany)

+Konrad Lorenz

+Niko Tinberga

+Fischer's lovebird- built nest out of paper w/o an influence (genetic ability)

+Peach faced love bird- tucked paper into tail (genetic)

+Hybrid breed- confused, learned to put in mouth 

+genetically programed behavior

+important to survival

+An unchanging behavioral sequence that must be done in its entirety 

Ex 1: Geese- egg rolled scientist, put it back in nest, but still had to "retrieve nothing"

+Genetically built behavior

+ Ex 2: European Cuckoo

 something that rouses or incites to activity

ex: baby birds when nest shakes

+ change in behavior resulting from experience 

(1) Habituation

(2) Imprinting

(3) Association

+Loss of response to stimulus after getting repeated w/o hard

+ Ex: Birds with scarecrow

+Saves energy because can ignore (do not have to worry)

+ Limited to specific window of opportunity

+ Once behavior is learned it cannot be unlearned

+ This time frame is called critical period

+ Ex: first thing grew goose see is mom, genetically programed to learn within 48 hours

+Dependent on reinforcement 

+ Do well = Get rewarded

+ Do Bad = Get hit

+ Ex: dogs started drooling when lights went on, they know thats when they get food

Regular movement of critters to one place to another & then back to first place

Ex: Gray Whales - baja peninsula to gulf of cali (making its easy for poachers) 

Monarch Butterfly- Mexico to north

+Birds have in their ears (iron containing mineral)

+act as a compass

Predator looks for for prey

GRRRRRR

Search Image

(feeding behavior)

Optimal Foraging

(Feeding Behavior)

Maximizing calories you get for the least amount of work

Ex: Jaguars in Belize- Main diet consists of armadillos and tapirs. Eat mostly armadillos (way easier)

Social Behavior

+Territory: fixed area defended by an individual or group

Ex: Birds have territory

+dogs mark territoy by urinating

Anaximanter (sp?)

+Early 1800's

+large cash prizes and contests

+ explanation for fossils of past animals being different from animals of today

+Research vessel: biologist, scientists, collected animals 

+ hired as a biologist, 5 years, South America, islands, New Zealand 

+ Collected fossils from multiple continents realizing some resembled each other

+ discovered 60,000 arch types (New Species)

+ Principles of geology

+ thought maybe earth was a million years old

+ Suggested things change

+ spent 6 years in Indonesia

+ data same a Charles Darwin 

+ Published his work, but Darwin published his a year later

+Mechanism to evolution

+ More offspring are produced than what can survive

+ Bell curve

+ Some species are more adaptive

Ex: fast rabbit vs. slow rabbit

fast rabbit will live longer and pass on genes so rabbits get faster

+ slow rabbit will have a tougher time breeding

+Individual who leaves most offspring wins

+ Survival of the fittest

Ex: Peppered moths

+ H.B.D Kettlewell studied the dark and light forms of these moths. (1950s)

+ Before & after industrial Revolution in England

B4: 1% dark form 99% Light form

After: Opposite

Lichen was on trees then not easy for birds to prey on one or the other.

+Adapts a population to their environment

3 types

(1) Stabilizing Selection

(2) Directional Selection

(3) Disruptive Selection

+Favors the average

+ if you are extreme : SUCKS

+ Average will have more offspring

+ less extremes over time on bell curve

Ex: Human birth weight: lowest death count lies between 7 & 8 lb

+Strong selective pressure against one side of bell curve. +bell curve will move to left or right

.:.Ex.:. Peppered Moth 

+ Natural selection favors both extremes

+ Average is screwed

.:.Ex.:. 

Cardinals: Females brown tones, Males Vibrant orange/red 

Ex 2: Sea lions males 3x larger than females

A process in which chance events cause unpredictable fluctuations in allele frequencies from one generation to the next. Effects of genetic drift are most pronounced in small populations.

Two types:

(1) bottle neck effect

(2) The founde effect

+ heterotroph (does not make own food)

+digestion is external (releases chemicals & absorbs)

+ 2 types

(1) Decomposers

(2) Parasites

an organism that lives on or in an organism of another species, known as the host, from the body of which it obtains nutriment.

(Fungi)

usually a bacterium or fungus, that breaks down the cells of dead plants and animals into simpler substances.

+ rot, releases chemicals in dead (recycles)

(1) Zygomeycetes

(2) ascomycetes

(3) Basidomycetes

+Fast growing mold

+ ex: black bread mold

grows on bread (zygospores)

+Spores are contained in Asci

+characterized by bearing the sexual spores in a sac 

Ex: Truffle, morel, penicillin, molds

+chestnut blight: chestnut trees wiped out in America 

+characterized by bearing the spores on a basidium, including the smuts, rust, mushrooms, and puffballs.

+ Club Fungi (classic mushrooms)

+ Smuts- kill rye, wheat

+ poisonous mushrooms shut down liver

+ symbiotic relationship between green algae & fungus

+together can live in almost anything

Replacemnt of one plant or animal in a community for another

 +species which colonize previously uncolonized land, usually leading to ecological succession

+ Usually poor quality land, few nutrients

 ex: lichens growing on fresh lava rock

+ non-vascular ( no vascular tissue)

+ Spores to reproduce

+ live in very moist areas

+ no roots, leaves

ex: moss low & moist

+transports food (saps, sugars)

+ vascular tissue

+ All vascular plants

+ you mow it!

+two types

(1) Seedless vascular plants

(2) Seed Plants 

+(xylem, phoelm), produce spores

+Ex: Ferns, horsetails

+ Energy stored in seeds

(1) Gymnosperms

(2) Angiosperms

+naked seed group, not protected by a fruit

Ex: Conifers- pine cone: lots of naked seeds

Most primitive are ginkgo (have not changed for 100s of millions of years)

*mulitcellular

*heterotrophs (ingest other organism)

*sexual reprodcution

*Embryonic development (simple to complex..grow)

* Motile (can move on their own)

* Body Symmetry (radial or bilateral symmetry)

*Body Cavity

*Repetition of body units

* cephalization (some sort of head or front)

*evolved from protista

*No backbone or internal support system (external)

* 97% of animals

*Types (7): Porifera, Cnidaria, Flatworms, Nematodes, Mollusks, Annelids, Arthropods

Sponges:

*filter feeders

*Motile for a bit, latch onto something for life

*No tissues (just bunches of cells)

*Jellies:

*Radial Symmetry

*nettle: stings (grasps with tenticles)

*Invented tissue

*Carnivorous

Ex: sea anemones, corals, hydra

* First to have bilateral symmetry

*no body cavity

*simple

ex: ((fluks?? sp.)) & tapeworms

*cylinder shape (3D)

ex: hookworms (little kids get)

round worms (simpler than earthworms)

Mollusk(s)

Mollusc(s)

*"Soft Bodied"

*First to come up with circulatory system (mostly open)

*2nd largest animal group

* Exoskeleton shell (mantle)

* 3 types(1) Gastropods 

(2) Bivalves

(3) Cephalopods

Mullusk

example: snail, slug

* Mullusk

*makes shell when to large

*example: fresh water clam, clam, oyster

*Mollusk

*Squid

*Came up with the closed circulatory system

* More efficient at moving

*fast

*Segmented worms

ex: earthworm, leech

*Joint-footed

* Over 1 million

* Paired joined appendages 

3 Types

(A) Archarids

(B) Crustacea

(C) Insecta

*Suck body fluids from animals (carnivorous)

* 8 legs

Example: Spider, Scorpion, Tick

*900,000 known species

*insects

comprising small, air-breathing arthropods having the body divided into three parts (head, thorax, and abdomen), and having three pairs of legs and usually two pairs of wings.

* Chitinous exoskeleton

* 2 pairs of anntenea

* Pair of appendages

* Ex: Lobster, crabs, shrimp, crawdad, sow bugs, pill bugs

*Most advance invertebrate group

*first to have internal support system

*not made up of bone or cartlidge

Ex: Sea Stars

Vertebrates (Chordates)

*characteristics that show up at some pt in life time

(A) Notochord (Cartilage Spine)

(B) Dorsal Nerve Chord- Nerves bundled together adjacent to notochord 

(C) Gill Slits

(D) Tail

*Hagfish: cartilage skeleton

*Produce black slime

*suck fish dryyyy

* Cartlidge Skeleton

* Developed Jaws

* Sharks, rays, skate

*developed bones

* any fish with complete bone structure

*First group to leave water enviornment

*Must reproduce in water

* External Reproduction

*Cant let skin dry out

* Odd place for appendages

* From developed special back appendages so they could hop

* Do not need water environment

*Internal fertilization (invented penis)

*Lungs (respiratory system)

*Developed amniotic eggs (water proof shell)

ex: crocodiles (invented 4 chamber heart & warm blooded)

*warm blooded (regulates internal temp)

*Amniotic egg

*Do not have teeth 

*All birds have scales

* hallow bones

*Ex. Frigate bird skeleton weighs 4 ounces

*Developed Hair

(1) monotremes: Lay eggs, no teeth

Ex: duck bill platapus

(2) Marsupials: no placenta, young develop in pouch Ex: Kangaroo

(3) Placental mammals:young develop inside mom

Changes in the size of a population & factors.

*why population goes up or down

Interbreeding organsims of same species occupying a givin area at a given time

Ex: Grey squirels in Columbia

Grey squirrels in St.louis

Number of individuals in a particular space or place

Ex: blue jays in a certain area (hard)

Plants (easy)

Look at number of rodents burrows, bird nests, other indicator of species.......

*for critters that do not like people

*Trap animals, mark them and let them go 

* Used to estimate population size in given area

* how critters are spread out in an area

3 types

(1) Clumped- live in patches around recources

(2) Uniform- Same amount of space per critter (during breeding periods)

(3) Random- Find in rain forest.. lots of fruit trees, animals eat and defecate

Unregulated Growth

(Exponential Growth)

Population growth increases rapidly under IDEAL conditions: plenty of food, mates ....

*J-Shaped Curve

G=rN

r: intrinsic rate of increase (ex: mouse vs. elephant)

N: number of critters

G: Growth Rate

*Factors limiting population growth 

Ex: food, space, mates

*Logistic growth curve "S-shaped"

There are enough resources to care for size of population 

Ex: Mule Deer 

Kill males during fall... plenty of resources in winter.... then lots of deer in fall again... cycle