3 advantages of a 4-chambered heart

• More efficient oxygen distribution
• higher blood pressure
• higher metabolic rates
  
  
  

only veins that carry well oxygenated blood 

Pulmonary Veins 

Arteries that supply the heart muscle of the heart with blood 

Coronary Arties 

circulatory fluid present in animals with an open circulatory system 

Hemolin 

What is the SA node of the heart?

function? 

pacemaker that initiates heartbeat 

number of chambers in a frog's heart 

3 

number of chambers in a bird's heart 

4 

number of chambers in a minnow's heart 

2 

animals that have true 4-chambered hearts 

mammals, birds, and crocodiles 

first group of animals that developed a double circulatory system (pulmonary and systemic) 

amphibians 

type of blood vessels that play a major role in maintaining blood pressure  

pulmonary and systemic 

direction of the blood circulation through the pulmonary system 

 Right Atrium----(Tricuspid valve)---->Right Ventricle---(pulmonic valve)---->lungs-----(pulmonic veins)---->Left Atrium----(mitral valve)----->left ventricle-----(Aortic Valve)----->body

type of artery that acts as pressure reservoir 

elastic arteries 

act as a volume reservoir 

veins 

functional units of the circulatory system 

heart, arteries, capillaries, veins, blood 

conduction of the impulse to contract as it passes through the heart 

sinatrial node->atrioventricular node->bundle of hiss->purkinje fibers 

role of AV node 

sends signals 

role of purkinje fibers 

conduct impulse to ventricles 

role of budle of hiss 

conducts impulse toward the apex 

When the orginal cluster cells that produce the impulse to contract become damaged, how might the heart respond?   

AV node initiates heart beat 

 universal donors

O negative 

Universal recipients 

AB positive 

definition of elastic arteries 

arteries that allow stretching in walls for blood flow 

type of muscle found in the walls of arteries

-what roll does it play? 

smooth muscle aids in elasticity and contraction 

function of blood platelets 

clotting 

function and description of erythrocytes 

red blood cells that carry oxygen 

megakaryocytes 

cells that make platelets and bone marrow

location where T-lymphocytes mature 

Thymus 

pericardium 

protective sac that protects the heart by reducing friction with the ribs 

side of bird's heart that supplies the body with blood

right side  

side of mammals/croc's heart that supplies the body with blood

left side 

lymph fluid 

intestinal fluid in the lymphatic system 

functions of the lymphatic system 

• drain fluid
• remove damaged red blood cells
• immune response
• transport fats & protiens  

origin of lymph fluid 

blood 

difference between blood plasma and lymph fluid 

no platelets in lymph fluid  

location where lymph fluid is returned to the circulatory system 

subclavian veins 

structure of lymph capillaries 

blind-ended vessels that overlap 

locations of the major concentrations of lymph nodes 

• armpit (axillary
• groin (inguino)
• neck (cervical) 

role of the lympatic system 

cleanses the blood 

anaphylactic shock 

severe allergic reaction 

non-specific defense mechanisms 

allows for general protection of the body

• physical and chemical barriers
• inflammation
•  phagocytosis
• generation of a fever
• compliment system

 histamines

released by most cells which dialates blood vessels 

antigens 

creates an immune response 

Killer T-cells 

recognize and destroy foreign cells 

Helper T-cells 

stimulate B-cells and T-cells to respond to foreign particles 

Suppressor T-cells 

inhibit the activity of Helper and Killer T-cells 

Memory T-cells 

elicit a rapid response if an antigen is encountered again 

type of immune system cell that ensures our immune system returns to normal following some disease 

Suppressor T-cells 

auto-immune disorder

disorder where the immune system does not recognize itself and then attacks itself 

advantages of a 2-ended digestive system 

1.  food not mixed with waste
2. allows for specialized regions
3. increases efficiency

difference between vitamins and minerals 

vitamins = organic

minerals = inorganic 

bile 

fluid that breaks down lipids which is produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder 

2 enzymes found in saliva 

salvory emalace - breaks down carbs

lysozymes - destroy bacteria

kwashiorkor 

protein starvation 

difference between hindgut and foregut 

hindgut has a secum 

reason why hindgut fermentation is inefficient for many animals 

hindgut is behind the SI so they have to eat more like a horse 

Pepsim 

primary enzyme in the stomach 

precursor molecule to Pepsim

reason why sodium bicarbonate is secreted by the pancreas is important  

neutralizes stomach acid and balances pH 

Vitamin A deficiency 

night vision decreases 

Vitamin D deficiency 

rickets 

Vitamin E deficiency 

Anemia 

Vitamin K deficiency 

hemorrhaging 

Vitamin C deficiency 

scurvy (poor bone growth) 

importance of Iodine 

essential for hormone growth 

importance of Calcium 

bone and muscle/nerve conduction 

importance of Sodium 

regulates ion and water balance 

crop (found in birds) is a modification of what organ 

Esophagus 

purpose of microvilli 

increases surface area of small intestine 

digestive function of the pancreas 

produces enzymes and secretes bicarbonate 

process that herbivores utilize in digestion that occurs in the large intestine 

fermentation - bacteria digests cellulose 

functional advantage and purpose of a gizzard in birds 

takes place of teeth and enables them to grind their food 

acid reflux 

when the lower esophageal sphincter muscle does not constrict properly 

digestion of protiens begins here 

stomach 

digestion of lipids begins here 

small intestine 

digestion of carbs begins here 

mouth 

primary site of nutrient absorption 

small intestine 

digestive organ that functions primarily in water reabsorption 

large intestine 

Pyloric sphincter 

controls the rate at which food leaves the stomach 

which animal would proportionatley have the largest cecum

• shrew
• dog
• bear
• deer
• fox 

deer 

functions of the liver 

1. regulate meabolism
2. excrete and synthesize bile 

reason why respiratory structures evolved

(gills, lungs) 

for gas exchange 

adaptation that amphibians have to supplement oxygen uptake 

highly vascularized skin 

description of ventilation in sharks 

movement through the mouth and out the gills

(ram breathing) 

description of ventilation in mammals

increased breathing rate 

description of ventilation in cray fish

fan water over gills 

how does respiration occur in Cnidarians

(jellyfish, hydra, ect.) 

occurs across the cell membrane 

description of the respiratory structure of insects 

tube system 

how carbon dioxide is released in aquatic organisms 

diffusion through membrane 

alveoli 

functional units of lungs 

reason why a dog's nose always seems cold 

passing cool air cools the nasal epithelium and the water vapor from the warm dense air condenses on the nose 

lamellae 

thin divisions of gill filaments that act as extensions of the gill surface 

spiracles 

openings in insects that allow air to enter 

diaphram 

specialized muscle which mammals use for inspiring air 

difference between respiration in bird lungs and  mammal lungs 

one way flow system through lungs 

exoskeleton

chitin 

substance which makes up skeleton of crustaceans and instects 

average age at which bone stops growing and continues to live 

20 

reason why animals with a rigid exoskeletons molt 

because they have to grow 

type of skeleton a sponge posesses 

endoskeleton composed of minerals and fiberous tissues  

osteoclasts 

works to dissolve bone, releasing calcium 

osteocytes 

mature osteoblasts 

osteoblasts 

responsible for building bone during development 

growth plates 

regions of actively dividing cells that stop growing if they become calcified too soon 

reason why an infant's skeleton is easily injured 

it hasn't been calcified yet (all cartilage) 

four types of tissue 

1. Epithelium
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve 

Epithelium 

type of tissue that provides surfaces for sensory receptors 

types of tissue that make up the lining of digestive organs 

smooth muscle and Epithelium 

type of tissue which is defined as cells in a matrix 

Connective tissue 

type of tissue which covers external body surfaces  

Epithelium 

type of tissue which has a secretory function 

Epithelium 

epithelial tissue classifications

1. Cell layer (simple or stratified)
2. Cell shape (squamous, quiboudal, columnar, psudostratified)

sequestring connective tissue

(adepose/fat or blood) 

specialized tissue for accumulation or transport of molecules 

type of tissue that adipose/fat and blood tissue are classified as  

sequestrial connective tissue 

homeostasis 

ability of an organism to maintain a constant internal environment despite external changes 

negative feedback 

results when internal conditions vary that trigger a response to return the organism to homeostasis (body temp) 

type of feedback that occurs more often 

negative feedback