-most morphologically variable species of living animals. 

-genetic basis of variation must be very small

-humans and chimps vary 1-2%

Ancient Egyptians classification for human 

variation

-noted differences in human groups.

-purely descriptive on outward appearance

-not rely on biological features for classify, but attempt to provide explanation for diff.

4 different Races:

-Europeans

-Africans

-Asians

-Lapps. (extra white finland iceland etc.)

heirarchy of all living things. 

male human on top

-Homo europaeus

-Homo afer

-homo asiaticus

-homo americanus

-homo sapiens ferus/monstrous

Linnaeus Taxonomy 

beliefs

put humans with primates, but peer pressured into making humans own group.

-behavioral and intellectual groups

-thought euro superior and blacks on bottom

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

contributions

criticized

Father of Physical Anthro

-Founder of racial classifications

-coined term caucasian

-categroies simplified to white yellow red black brown

-criticized bc skin color shows overlapping

-Caucasiod

-Mongoloid

-Malay

-Ethiopian

-American

stable not influenced by enviromental factors

-start using charactoristics that dont overlap/uniformly expressed

developed cephalic index-method for describing shape of head

-divide breadth(width) by length

-unreliable bc Euro shape charact. with Africans

doliochocephalic- 75 (long narrow) N Euro

Mesocephalic- 75-80 (middle) 

brachycephalic 80+ (large) S Euro

Montegue and Huxley

&goal 

difficult to use zoological nomenclature

vocal opponent to "race" and for "ethnic group"

-groups differ bc geographc and social boundaries

-race has no clear boundaries- continuous

goal not to classify, but to discover what produces variation and changes gene freq. 

nonexsistence of human races

Clinal Variation- variation of traits

wrote "the Bell Curve"

-show diff of inteeligence b/n races

-Africans at bottom, less intelligent that Euro

-fail to distinguish b/n test & inteligence

-way admin. &familiarity w/ objects refered 

-average scores not different on untimed version of test. 

-familiarity of can increase performance

compare Arab adn Jewish

-untimed=same scores 

"time is of the devil" 

-biggest problem w Bell curve- attempts to use differences of average IQ scores

long term adaptation to enviro

-dark skin- tropical region

-light skin- northern latitudes

-hemoglobin

-karotene

-pigment melanin

produced by melanocytes in epidermis

-all humans have same amnt of melanocytes

-amnt size and shape of melanin granuals affect skin color 

Natural Selection and Melanin

in early hominids

dark skin in areas close to equator where sun most direct and UV most intense

-early hominids livedin tropics and spent most time outside. probs had dark skin

Natural Selection of melanin

in later hominids

as moved from Africa to Asia and Europe selective pressures changed. 

-selection for melanin production reduced

you need vitamin D for bones to grow

-body produces D through exposure to UV  and cholersterol in skin cells-> need adequate exposure to sunlight for normal bone growth. 

Rickets: insufficient amnt D during childhood

bone deformities: women narrow birth canal which can kill babies. 

favor less pigmented skin-> blacks in cities more likely to get rickets

-need protection against overexposure to UV

-need for UV for vitamin D

long: skin color

short: acclimatization

highest tolerable temp for human: 104-107.6

-organs fail, tissue hemorage -> death

heat loss through evaporative cooling 

-dissapate heat by sweating

-increased perspiration

-increased exposure of skin due to decreased amnt body hair

-dangerous to lose to much water

relationship of body mass & surface area

-body size inc. amnt surface area decr. proportionately

lowest body weights in high annual temps.

highest weights in low temps

shape of body:

-cold climate have short arms and legs(keep in warm)

-warm climate has long arm and legs(heat loss)

inc. heat production or inc ability to retain heat

Short term: 

-inc metabolism rate through shivering

-vasoconstriction- restricts heat loss and conserve energy

-behavior: inc activity, inc food consumption, fetal position(to decr. surface area)

high altitudes 

produce stress on body

-hypoxia (reduced availability of oxygen)exerts greatest amnt stress

-more intense solar radiation

-cold -low humidity -wind

-reduced nutritional base   -rough terrain

results from reduced barometric pressure

-must inc bodies ability to transport and utilize oxygen efficiently

-inc mortality rate of newborns

-low birth weight, attributed to decreased fetal growth

-at high elevation, large chest size/ lung size

trying to understand human evolution sent Jane Goodall, Diane Fessey, Birute Galdikas to study closest relative

-wanted to use comparative method to understand evolution of modern human and hominid ancestors morphology and behavior

-study of humankind - "what makes us human?"

comparing non human and human primates help us identify what culture is and develop definitions for it

-language defines humans (diff bn human &chimp)

Features that define primates:

limb and locomotion

Features: 

hands and feet

-high degree of prehesility (grasping ability)

-pentadactyly- 5 digits on hands and feet

-opposable thumb

-nials instead of claws

-tactile pads- nerves on ends of digits

Features:

senses and brain

-rely heavily on vision and less on smell

-color vision

-decr. reliance on sense of smell (olfaction)

-stereoscopic vision- depth perception, binocular vision/3D

-expansion and complexity of brain 

-postorbital bar or closure

Strepsirhini

Haplorhini

more primitive: prosimian

Eocene Era: 50-40 mya

-lemuriformes

-lorisiformes

families of lemuriformes:

-Daubentonidae

-indriidae

-lepilemuridae

-cheirogalidae

-lemuridae

-Galagidae

-Lorisidae

Lemuridae

charactoristics

-diverse morphologically and behaviorally

--reversed sexual dimorphism (very rare)

-females feeding priority/dominance

-stink fights

Lemuridae 

examples

Hepalemur aureus/ golden bamboo lemur

-eat cyanide

Hepalemur Bebop/ bamboo lemur

Brown Lemur

-dont eat cyanide, but rub it on bodies to repel insects. cyanide found in millipedes

Daubentonidae

charactoristics

-1 species in family

-extremely specialized

-dental formula 1013/1003

-biggest prosimian

-3rd digits are thin and wiry for percussive foraging(banging on trees to look for food)

-forever growing central incisors

-live in leaf nests

Indriidae

charactoristics

-Indri and Propithecus are diurnal

--Avahi nocturnal

-vertical climbers and leapers

-Indri is one of largest living prosimians

Lepilemuridae

7 Karyotypes

-vertical climbers and jumpers

-folivers

-nocturnal

-sportive lemurs

-night

-pair living

-preyed on by night by rapters

Cheirogalidae

charactoristics

-5 genera of dwarf lemurs

-small

-sleep in small nests or tree hollows

-closely related to African galagos

-hibernate

-include pottos (African) and Lorises (Asian)

-move silently through dense forest- cryptic

-very reduced 2nd digit

Emit large number vocalizations

-sound like human baby crying(bush baby)

-taxanomic limbo

-matrilines

-leapers

-nocturnal

-urine washing

-smaller body size

-more snouty skull (less rounded)

-eyes more towards side/ no binocular vision

-no post orbital closure

-wet rhinarium- inc sense of smell

-mandible not fused with chin/unfused frontal

-tooth comb &grooming claw

-2 pairs nipples minimum

-cranial blood supply from stapedial of ascending pharyngael artery

-epitheliochorial placentatron- nutrients to baby

-bicornuate uterus

-cranial blood supply from promonotory artery

-unicornuate uterus

-haen...chorial placenta

Tarsiformes - tarsiers

platyrrhini- NWM

Catarrhini - OWM apes and humans

-from SE Asia adn Indo region

-rainforests

-nocturnal, small bodied, aboreal

-vert. climbers and leapers

-monogamous family

-eat insects (carnivors)

-post orbital closure

-mobile upper lip

-haemochorial placentation

-lack tapetum lucidum (reflective tape behind eye)

-dry rhinarium

-cranial blood supply from promotory artery

-fovea centralis

-no dental comb

share # of derived anatomical features

-ex. tarsiers w/ haplorhini

-nocturnal -sm body

-solitary  -mulitple nipples

-bicornuate uterus -grooming claw

-unfused mandibular symphisis

-unfused metopic suture

Platyrhini

charactoristics

-tropical areas of central and S America

-monkeys have tails

-sm-medium sized

-nostrils open to the side

-flat noses w/ wide spread nostrils

-dental formula 2133

-zygomatic and parietal bones in contact

Platyrhini

families

-Cebidae

-Atelidae

-Callitrichidae

-up to 10 kg

-prehensile tails in Cebus

-not as strong as Atelidae

Capuchin-reg use tools in wild (only other than chimps)

prehensile tails with ridges

-ex. Howler monkey (lazy hoe), wooly m., wooly spider m, spider m.

sexual dichromatism- m&f different colors

-marmosets adn tamarins

-extremely sm. less than 1 kg

-dont have nails, claws to cling vertically to trees while feeding on gum exudate

-2132

-tamarins often twins- fraternal

-Bicornuate uterus- 2 diff sperm

-take care based on % chance child is theirs

Catarhini

charactoristics

-narrow nostrils face down

-2123    -larger

-sexual dimorphism (male larger)

-frontal and sphenoid bones in contact

- no prehensile tails

-diurnal 

Catarhini

 2 super families

-cercopithecoidea - OWM

-hominoidea- apes humans

diverse and successful

- bilophondant molars- bumps=2 parallel ridges

-Africa and Asia (Euro only in Gilbraltar)

Cercopithecoidea

subfamilies

-cercopithicinae- cheek pouch m

-colobinae- leaf eating m

-sharp cusps on teeth

-foresut formation- bacteria in tummy to break down food

-sm have ranges

Hominoidea 

charactoristics

-no tails

-molars in Y shapes

-scapula on back

-shorter lumbar region

-less sexual dimorphism

-long upper lips

Hominoidea 

5 families

-hylobatidae -lesser apes

-pongidae -orangutans (asian apes)

-panidae -chimp

-Gorillidae -gorilla

-hominidae -humans

-lesser apes (gibbons)

-Asian

-arboreal

-brachiators -propel through forest by arms

-> free flight

orangutans

-SE Asia (Indonesia) only on Sumatra and Borneo

-only great ape not found in Africa

-pronounced sexual dimorphism

-upper central incisors very large-lateral sm

-thick dental enamel

-1st of great apes to split from human lineage

-associated with fossil (sivapithecus)

-largest living arboreal mammal (males on floor)

-females spend 90% time w babies

-young females social

-males are raping douches

-

-western lowlands, eastern lowlands, mountain g. (congo, rwanda, uganda)

-largest of apes, 200-400lbs. 

-shy and gentle

-knuckle walking 

-very little fossil evidence, closely related to man

-sexual dimorphism

-sagittal crest- ridge along skull- chewing muscle

-sympatric w/ chimps

Panidae

2 species

-pan troglodytes (common chimp)

-pan paniscus (pygmy chimp or bonobo)

Pan paniscus 

and bonobo

pan- only in congo, muscle definition

bonobo

-not observed  hunting and dont use tools

-males rub rumps for reassurance

-penial fencing.... gross

-genito genito (GG) rubbing females

-face to face sex- eye contact

monogomy

polygamy

multi male multi female

dispersed

single male multi female

close permanent spacial association b/n m&f

-mate for life

-4 behavioral charactoristics

-provided by fathers to babies

-rare in mammals

-always post natal carre by f

-cost benefit of care vs possiblity could be mating more

-must be certain father to provide care

active defense of resource space

-intersexual competition m vs m f vs f

-do not exhibit sexual dimorphism

-2 types: obligate, facultive

-m obliged to be monog. bc need for paternal care: if didnt help baby would die

-low density and dispersion of f

-f more abundant

-stringent requirements for paternal care less required 

Gibbons

&monogomy

codominant: m&f

relationship bn groups hostile 

-encourage offspring to leave through aggression

recorded songs of solitary m&f 

m&f aggressive towards same sex, but went towards opposite sex

-said males forced into monogomy

-more males than f

males takes care of females: RARE

-tamarian and marmosets

-tolerate other males bc need help to raise babies:litter mass very high

did study with saddleback tamarins

-m&f pair unable to raise babies alone

-3 adults =70% chance survival

-4 adults =100% chance survival

lose 5% of body mass in first 4 weeks after babies are born

single m multi f

-all male bands/bachelor bands

-competition bn m to access breeding f 

-male takeovers: beat up resident m and kill dependent offspring (infanticide)

-sexual dimorphism in canine and bod size

mulitmale multi female

-many adult males leads to sexual tension

-dissipated through sperm comptition and dominance hierarchies

-enlarged male testes relative to body size

-approach retreat interactions:winner gets sex

-dont form permanent mixed sex groups

-m have ranges that overlap several diff f ranges

-communicate through olfaction

-nocturnal prosimians

-some orangutans

-groups of 1 m and multi f

at night aggregate to on cliff

chimps

forage alone, sometimes subgroups of m&f 

-subgroups fission off and fuse back together

-enhanced access to resources

-reduced vulnerabilty to predation

wrangham- power in numbers-defend resources

Joint defense most profitable when:

-food valuable

-clumped food resources

-meet needs of multiple individs

FRUIT 

does not perfectly predict

ex. musclelemurs eat fruit and not in groups