Term
| Fill in the missing organs of the respiratory system: |
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Definition
| External nares of nose (air enters) -> nasal cavity -> pharynx (both air and food move through) -> trachea -> primary bronchi (large tubes leading to both lungs) -> lungs. |
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Term
Each lung is surrounded by two layers of serous membrane known as pleurae. These are:
visceral pleura; covers the surface of the lung
parietal pleura; lines the thoracic wall
The space in between is called the pleural cavity and it is filled with pleural fluid.
This fluid assists breathing movements by acting as a lubricant. |
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Definition
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Term
| Bronchial tree: Air flows from the trachea through the primary, secondary, and tertiary bronchi to smaller and smaller bronchi. The trachea and bronchi contain cartilage to keep the airways open. Bronchi branch into bronchioles, which do not contain cartilage but do contain more smooth muscle. This allows for regulation of air flow. |
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Definition
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Term
| Airways from the nasal cavity through the terminal bronchioles are called the conducting zone. The function of this zone is to warm and humidify the air. Is there gas exchange in this zone? No |
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Definition
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Term
| The respiratory zone contains alveoli where gas is exchanged. This zone consists of the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveolar sacs. |
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Definition
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Term
The pulmonary artery carries blood that is low in oxygen to the lungs.
Pulmonary capillaries exchange gases with the alveoli. Blood leaves the lungs in the pulmonary veins, which carry oxygenated blood back to the heart. |
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Definition
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Term
| Name the three types of cells in the alveolus: |
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Definition
Type I; simple squamous epithelium
Macrophage; removes debris and microbes
Type II; secretes surfactant. Surfactant decreases surface tension, which prevents the alveoli from collapsing. |
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Term
| The thin respiratory membrane consists of the simple squamous epi¬thelium and the basement membrane of both the alveolus and the capillary. |
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Definition
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Term
| In congestive heart failure (Quiz section), there is an accumulation of fluid in the lungs (known as pulmonary edema). This increases the thickness of the respiratory membrane, resulting in less gas exchange. |
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Definition
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Term
| Indicate the relationship with arrows below |
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Definition
Increased volume -> Decreased pressure
Decreased volume -> Increased Pressure |
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Term
| Mark “I” for the muscles that control inspiration and “E” for the muscles that control forceful expiration. |
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Definition
I Diaphragm
E Internal intercostals
E External oblique and rectus abdominus
I External intercostals |
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Term
| Intrapulmonary pressure decreases during inspiration. |
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Definition
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Term
What pressure is always negative and helps to keep the lungs inflated?
It is most negative during inspiration. |
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Definition
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Term
If transpulmonary pressure equals zero, what will happen to the lungs?
This is known as a/an pneumothorax. |
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Definition
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Term
When the bronchiole constricts, what will happen to resistance?
To air flow? |
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Definition
Increase resistance
Decrease airflow |
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Term
| Name two other important factors that play roles in ventilation: |
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Definition
resistance within the airways
lung compliance |
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Term
| For questions 8 through 10, fill in constrict or dilate, then use increase and decrease arrows. |
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Definition
Histamine will constrict bronchioles -> increase resistance -> decrease air flow
Epinephrine will dilate bronchioles -> decrease resistance -> decrease air flow
Acetylcholine will constrict bronchioles -> increase resistance -> decrease air flow |
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Term
| Fibrosis will decrease compliance, making it harder to inflate the lungs. |
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Definition
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Term
| A decrease in surfactant will result in a decrease in compliance. |
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Definition
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Term
| The atmosphere is a mixture of gases. Write down the percentages for: |
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Definition
O2 20.9%
CO2 0.04%
N2 78.6%
H2O 0.46% |
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Term
Calculate the partial pressures of the following gases at both atmospheric pressures:
760 mmHg 747 mmHg |
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Definition
O2 159 mmHg 156 mmHg
CO2 0.3 mmHg 0.3 mmHg
N2 597 mmHg 587 mmHg
H2O 3.5 mmHg 3.4 mmHg |
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Term
| What is the atmospheric pressure on the top of Mt. Whitney? |
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Definition
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Term
| Calculate the partial pressure of O2 on the top of Mt. Whitney. |
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Definition
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Term
| Why does more CO2 than O2 dissolve in liquid when both gases are at the same pressure? Name the law that explains this. |
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Definition
| CO2 is much more soluble in liquid than O2; Henry’s Law |
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Term
| Efficient external respiration depends on three main factors. List them. |
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Definition
| Surface area and structure of the respiratory membrane, Partial pressure gradients, and Matching alveolar air flow to pulmonary capillary blood flow |
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Term
| What three factors cause the partial pressures of gases in the alveoli to differ from pressures in the atmosphere? |
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Definition
| humidification of air, gas exchange between alveoli and capillaries, and mixing of new and old air |
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Term
| When air flow is restricted so that the partial pressure of O2 is low and CO2 is high, what happens to the: |
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Definition
arterioles? vasoconstriction (CO2 effect)
bronchioles? dilation (O2 effect) |
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Term
| Internal respiration depends on three factors. List them. |
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Definition
available surface area
partial pressure gradients
variable rate of blood flow varies |
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Term
The planet Pneumo has a total atmospheric pressure of 900 mmHg. Oxygen and carbon dioxide each constitute 30% of the atmosphere.
What is the partial pressure of oxygen on the planet Pneumo? Which gas would be found in the highest concentration in your blood? |
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Definition
PO2 = 270 mmHg
CO2 would be found in the highest concentration in blood. |
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Term
Oxygen transport in the blood:
98.5 % is bound to hemoglobin
1.5 % dissolves in plasma |
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Definition
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Term
| The hemoglobin molecule is composed of 4 polypeptide chains and 4 heme groups containing iron. What does oxygen bind to? |
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Definition
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Term
| After one oxygen molecule (O2) binds to hemoglobin, it is easier for the other molecules to bind to the hemoglobin. This is known as cooperative binding (or positive cooperativity). |
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Definition
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Term
| When oxygen is loaded onto hemoglobin in the lungs, hemoglobin is called oxyhemoglobin, and when oxygen is unloaded from the hemoglobin at the tissues, it is called deoxyhemoglobin. |
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Definition
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Term
From the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve, we see the following:
Lungs: Partial pressure of oxygen is 100 mmHg, Hemoglobin is 98 % saturated
Tissues: Partial pressure of oxygen is 40 mmHg, Hemoglobin is 75 % saturated |
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Definition
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Term
| Effect of high altitude on lung PO2: With a decrease of 20 mmHg in the lungs, will the saturation of hemoglobin decrease significantly? |
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Definition
| No, the saturation of hemoglobin will decrease only about 3% (from 98% to 95% saturated). |
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Term
| Effect of exercise on tissue PO2: With a decrease of 20 mmHg in the tissues, will the saturation of hemoglobin decrease significantly? |
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Definition
| Yes, the saturation of hemoglobin will decrease from 75% to 35%. |
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Term
| How does this help the tissues? |
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Definition
| This allows more O2 to unload at the tissues. |
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Term
Name the other factors that alter PO2: pH, temperature, PCO2, BPG
During exercise, would an increase or decrease in these factors decrease PO2 hemoglobin saturation, making more O2 available to the tissues? |
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Definition
decrease pH
Increase Temperature
Increase Pco2
These factors would shift the oxygen-hemoglobin curve to the right.
Increase BPG |
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Term
| List the percentages for CO2 transport in the blood: |
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Definition
7 % dissolved in plasma
23 % combined with hemoglobin
70 % converted to bicarbonate ions
When CO2 binds to hemoglobin, it is called carbaminohemoglobin. |
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Term
CO2 transport as bicarbonate ions:
CO2 binds with water to form carbonic acid.
The catalyst for this reaction is carbonic anhydrase.
The acid mentioned above then dissociates into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions.
When bicarbonate ions move out of the red blood cell, chloride ions move in.
This is known as the chloride shift.
The reaction occurs in the opposite direction at the lungs so that CO2 can be released. |
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Definition
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Term
A decrease in hemoglobin O2 leads to an increase in CO2 loading. Said another way, O2 loading facilitates CO2 unloading. (Note: The effect is on CO2 loading and unloading.)
This is known as the Haldane effect. |
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Definition
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Term
A decrease in CO2 loading facilitates O2 unloading from hemoglobin. Said another way, CO2 loading facilitates O2 unloading. (Note: The effect is on O2 loading and unloading.)
This is known as the Bohr effect |
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Definition
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Term
| Where in the medulla are the neurons that set the basic respiratory rhythm? |
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Definition
| Ventral respiratory group (VRG) |
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Term
| What modifies this medullary center? |
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Definition
Central and peripheral chemoreceptors
Pons |
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Term
| What is the most important stimulus controlling ventilation? |
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Definition
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Term
| What ion directly stimulates the central chemoreceptors? |
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Definition
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Term
| Arterial PO2 must drop below what to stimulate the peripheral chemoreceptors? |
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Definition
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Term
| If a person hyperventilates, what will happen to the following in the blood? |
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Definition
Decrease in PCO2
Increase in pH |
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Term
| If a person hypoventilates, what will happen to the following in the blood? |
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Definition
Decrease in PO2
Increase in PCO2 |
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Term
What does lung hyperinflation stimulate?
The effect on inspiration is inhibition.
What is this reflex called? Inflation reflex or Hering-Breuer reflex |
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Definition
| Pulmonary stretch receptors (PSRs) |
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Term
Dust, smoke, and noxious fumes will stimulate receptors in airways.
Name the receptors. Irritant receptors
Explain the protective reflexes. |
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Definition
| Remove irritants from the airways by invoking coughing and sneezing. |
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Term
| Name four of the six factors that probably increase ventilation during exercise. |
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Definition
1.Learned responses
2.Neural input from motor cortex
3.Receptors in muscles and joints
4.Increased body temperature
5.Epinephrine and norepinephrine
6.Epinephrine and norepinephrine |
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