1. Pyruvate  --> actyladehyde + CO₂ 

2. Acetyladehyde + NADH --> ethanol + NAD⁺

1. NADH passes electron to Quinone

2. FADH₂ passes electron to Quinone 

3. QH₂ passes electron to cytochrome c

4. Cytochrom c passes the electron to oxygen

1. Prophase

2.Metaphase

3. Anaphase

4. Telophase 

Meiosis makes 4 daughter celss with N chromsome (gametes)

Mitosis makes 2 daughter cells with 2N chromosomes

 (somatic cells) 

During the cells life, the cylin builds up and fits into the CDK (MPF made, does work on the cell) 

Pushes the cell into the mitotic phase 

Uncontrolled cell division 

From : Excessive growth factors

Turning on of cyclin at the wrong time 

Defects in tumor suppressors 

An example of a metabolic pathway that occurs in almost all organisms (enzymes in the cytosol of a eukaroytic cell) 

10 enzymes=10 steps 

(Glucose is taken apart one or two atoms at a time) 

Goes in : ADP, Pi, NAD⁺

Comes out: 2 pyruvates, 2 ATP's, 2 NADH's 

6C--> two 3 C mlcs 

Takes place in the cytosol 

Pyruvate + NADH--> Lactic acid + NAD⁺

when oxygen becomes available lactic acid is used for energy 

Pyruvate + NAD⁺ + Coenzyme A+ ---> CO₂ + NADH + acetly Coenzyme A 

takes place in mitochondria 

The acetyl group is used to make more ATP 

8enzymes= 8 steps in the pathway 

Function : to make ATP and building blocks for other mlcs and to take apart the acetyl group in small steps 

Goes in: Acetly group + 4C acid---> citrate 

Also ...ADP, Pi, FAD, NAD⁺ 

Comes out: 4C acid (OAA), 2CO_2, 2ATPs, 3NADHs , FADH

takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria 

6 CO₂

2 ATP

10 NADHs 

2 FADH₂

1. NADH is used to pump H+ across the inner mitochondrial membrane, electrons go to oxygen-- drives proton pump

2. An electrochemical gradient for H+ is formed

3. ATP synthesis is done by an enzyme in the membrane that uses the H+ gradient 

Complex I- NADH dehydrogenase

NADH passes electron to Quinone (4 H+ pumped)

Comple II (not a pump) 

FADH₂ passes electron through to Quinone 

Comple III, cytochrome bc 1 

QH₂ passes electrons to Quinone

(4 H+ pumped) 

 Complex IV- cytochrome oxidase

Cytochrome passes the electron to oxygen 

(4 H+ pumped) 

It uses the electrochemical gradient for protons.

Protons cause the rotor to turn, this changes the shape of of the head group where ADP and Pi are bound-- promoting the synthesis of ATP 

For every 3 protons moving through the enzyme, 1 ATP is made. 

(Also called ATPase-- rxn is reversible) 

Round head piece- site of ADP and Pi bonding

Stalk and membrane part- rotor

Section that connects the membrane and head group- stator 

Bun-- chains of glucose broken down by hydrolysis 

Goes to glycolysis or stored as glycogen in liver, muscle 

Beef Patty--protein, polypeptides broken apart by hydrolysis

--amino acids converted to pyruvate, acetyl groups, or Krebs cycle intermediates 

Partitioning depends on a special aparatus made mostly of microtubules and microtubule motors

"spindle" is an arangment of microtubules 

It is an organzing structure made of special protein

Centrioles are in the center of the microtubules 

There is one kinetochore for every chromatid, so two on a chromsome 

(each side is connected to another pole) 

Division of the whole cell

Animals- involves actin and myosin, actin forms a ring around the area to be divided, attached to the plasma membrane---myosin causes the ring to contract (the new cell is pinched off) 

Genes on the same chromosome that only separate if parts of the chromosome are exchanged during crossing over in meiosis 

# of recombinated progeny/ total # of progeny

1%= 1 map unit apart 

X & Y ( y has few active genes) 

Some genes are sex linked (color blindness, muscular dystophy) 

XX female,  XY male 

Many flowers show this 

Red R , white r 

F1-- all are Red Rr

F2--  1 RR,  2 Rr,  1 rr 

ABO blood type.

The three alleles specify what kind of sugar is put on a class of glyolipid in red blood cells 

There are three loci and six alleles 

AA BB AB Ai, Bi, ii

He worked with virulent and benign strains of pneumonia 

Form R (benign) and S 

-experiment showed that information for infection in the S cells was somehow taken up and expressed by the R cells 

-R cells were transformed into S cells by the heat-killed S cells 

He was looking for a transforming substance 

Inactivated only by DNAase

Concluded : DNA carries the genetic information for infection 

Used a bacterial virus

Found that the S-35 protein from virus is not injected into cells but the P-32 DNA is injected 

Concluded: DNA carries genetic info

They worked with Neurospore Crassa

Experiment- isolation of mutants that required different metabolites 

They used the mutants to determine order of steps in a metabolic pathway 

Three bases, a codon, that specify an amino acid 

ATG- start, endcodes methionine 

TAA, TAG, TGA- stop, do not encode for an amino acid 

They are genes (6-100) That are packaged in a protein coat 

They behave like parasites and use cells to reproduce 

Cause diseases ( HIV, flu, SARS, hepatitis) 

Antibotics do not work on them 

Many viruses have RNA genomes

Glyceraldhyde-P  + ADP + NAD⁺ ---> bis-P glycerate + NADH

bis-P glycerate + ADP ---> P-glycerate + ATP 

(Krebs cycle)

Succinyl CoA + Pi + ADP  ---> succinate + ATP