25

CHON 96%

most mass O

most atoms H

Electronegativity 

CHON

 O & N more electronegative 

C & H less electronegative 

nonpolar = C-H & O-O --> Same electronegativity

polar = O-H & N-H --> partial pos. & neg. 

pos. & neg. charges

unequal sharing electrons - polar

water loving

neutral charge 

equal sharing of electrons - nonpolar covalent

Isomers 

mirror images = hands

Carbon bonded to 4 different groups

Enantiomers

Examples:

Ibuprofen to Albuterol

D-glucos & L-glucose

Glucose Polysaccharides

polymers glucose

Cellulose - beta glucose -plants

Starch - alpha glucose - plants

Glycogen - alpha glucose - animals

[image]

Negative = acidic --> carboxyl

Positive = basic --> amino

Carboxyl loses OH = Carbonyl

COOH to C=O

Amino acid adds to new Carbonyl end

H20 leaves

 [image]

Phosphate 

Sugar (#1-5)

Nitrogenous base (A,T,U,C,G)

Sugar - Phosphate backbone

add onto 3' end

H bond

A, T , U=2 H

C-G = 3 H

2 Carbon Rings

A & G

1 Carbon Ring

C, T, U

Fats = fatty acids + glycerol

Phospholipids = fatty acids + glycerol + choline +phosphate

Steroids = 4 fused carbon rings

protein enzymes

catalyze transfer of phosphate to another molec.

Example 

ATP to Protein molec.

=ATP to ADP

protein enzyme

catalyze removal of phosphate to free phosphate

Example:

active protein + phosphate

phosphatase removes

= inactive protein & free phosphate

1 circular chromosome

mostly unicellular

no membrane bound organelles

no distinct nucleus

small in size

bacteria; archaea

phospholipid membrane

ribosomes & DNA

several linear chromosomes

membrane bound organelles (prokaryotes)

bigger in size

multicellular

DNA in nucleus

hydrophilic & hydrophobic

membranes of molecules

biles, soap

amphipathic phospholipid bilayer

moves - not covalently bonded

Cell Membrane:

Nonpolar (hydrophobic) substances

Cell Membrane:

Polar (hydrophilic) substances

Oxidized

Acts as Reducing agent

Reduced

Acts as Oxidizing agent

Electron Acceptors/Donors:

Photosynthesis

high energy donor: H20 + chlorophyll + sun --> O2

low energy acceptor: CO2 --> macromolecules

Electron Acceptors/Donors:

Respiration

high energy donor: macromolecules --> CO2

low energy acceptor: O2 --> H2O

2 phospholipid bilayers

breakdown sugars to make ATP

make ATP

exhale CO2 from sugars & fats

Glycolysis

pyruvate oxidation

citric acid cycle

electron transport chain

Gluse phosphorylate 2x = fructose

Fructose splits = 2 G3P

6 Carbon --> 2 G3P

electrons removed from G3P = NADH

PGK & pyruvate kinase remove phosphates = ATP

2 G3P --> 2 Pyruvate + ATP + NADH

Pyruvate into mitochondrion

Carboxyl removed = CO2

electrons removed = NADH

Acetyl attaches to Sulfer on CoA

3 Carbon to 2 Carbon

&

CO2 + NADH

acetyl leaves CoA

add to 4C oxaloacetate

= 6C citrate

2 carbons removed = CO2

electrons removed = NADH 

CoA aids in ATP formation

2 C to 2 CO2 + ATP + NADH

electrons from glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, and citric acid drive ATP synth. with ATP synthase

inner mitochondrion = cristae 

O2 final electron acceptor = form H2O

facilitated diffusion of protons into mitochondrial matrix

= drive ATP production

facilitates proton diffusion

attach phosphate to ADP --> ATP

ATP synthase on cell membrane

ion gradient

anaerobic respiration

usually only glycolysis

glucose --> pyruvate

coupled to ATP production

no ATP synthase with proton gradient

2 phospholipid membrane

Thykaloids

Stroma (cytoplasm)

phospholipid bilayer

harvest light 

ATP made on its membrane

chlorophyll here

get electrons from H2O

feed into eletron transport chain

gets electrons from transport chain

re-excited by sunlight energy

G2 interphase

prophase

prometaphase

metaphase

anaphase

telophase & cytokinesis

exact copy

Prophase

metaphase

anaphase 

telophase & cytokinesis 

2rounds 

1st round homologous crossover in prophase

programmed cell death 

Single strand DNA and proteins to condense it

lots of genes

all DNA in cell 

(1 or several chromosomes)

DNA to protein

Transcription

RNA processing - mrna

Translation-ribosome, polypeptide

mRNA to protein

tRNA brings amino & pairs with mRNA