Term
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Definition
-Called: "Intelligent Design" (too complicated, thus product of higher intelligence)
-Propose earth is 6,000-10,000 years old
-propose: earth created with apparent age
-unfalsifiable |
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Term
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Definition
Processes that we observe today have always been occurring and can account for current geological formations
Example: earthquakes over time creating a mountain |
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Term
| Endemic (Galapagos island animals) |
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Definition
| Belonging exclusively or confined to a particular place |
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Term
| Finch Beak Variation (Galapagos Islands) |
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Definition
| -Finches similar, but beaks varied based on their target food source(example thicker beak for breaking seeds) |
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Term
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Definition
Traits selected by breeder to produce favorable offspring
Examples: cattle, cats, dogs, mustard plant |
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Term
| 5 Steps of Natural Selection |
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Definition
1. Overpopulation
2. Variation
3. Struggle for existence
4. Organisms with best adaptations survive and reproduce
5. Adaptations are inherited by offspring |
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Term
| Overpopulation(N.S. Step 1) |
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Definition
| More offspring are produced than can possibly survive |
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Term
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Definition
-All organisms vary in size, shape, and behavior
-Extensive variation = some will have special productive traits called "adaptations"
-Adaptations allow them to deal with environments better than those without |
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Term
| Struggle for Existence(N.S. Step 3) |
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Definition
-Competition, predation, and environmental extremes put stress on populations to survive
- competition for resources |
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Term
| Organisms with the best adaptations survive and reproduce(N.S. Step 4) |
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Definition
-those with adaptations have an advantage and more likely to survive and reproduce
-"survival of the fittest"
-Fitness: tendency to leave more offspring that reproduce than competitors |
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Term
| Adaptations are inherited by offspring(N.S. Step 5) |
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Definition
-Particulate inheritance --> genes
-view was- blending inheritance- Example beak lengths (5 inch mates with 3 inch = 4 inch) |
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Term
| Fossils(Why can they be problematic?) |
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Definition
-Soft bodied forms don't tend to show
-fossilization is a rare occurrence
-many gaps
-volcanic forces can destroy them |
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Term
| Fossils(How do they support Macro-Evolution) |
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Definition
-sequence of fossils (older rocks/fossils = more foreign in appearance, while newer rocks yield recent species)
-order fish then amphibians then reptiles etc
-can be falsified, but is not |
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Term
| Precambrian Explosion (make a point against creationism) |
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Definition
| -Although it may appear as though life appeared in abundance from nothing, but this is most likely due to soft bodied forms predating the formation of exo/endo skeletons. |
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Term
| Homologous Structure (define, then give example) |
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Definition
-Structures that have the same evolutionary origin, but not necessarily the same function
Example: Forearm bones in cats, humans, whales, bats are very similar, but have drastically different functions |
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Term
| Divergent Evolution (define + example) |
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Definition
-Homologous structures
-Closely related forms look different due to environmental factors
Example: Wooly Mammoth vs Elephant |
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Term
| Analogous Structure (Define + example) |
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Definition
-Structures that have different evolutionary origins, but same function
Example: bird, pterodactyl, insects, bats solving flight in different ways |
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Term
| Convergent Evolution (define + example) |
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Definition
-Analogous Structures
-Distantly related forms look similar because of similar selection pressure (environment)
Example: Rabbit vs mara, fish vs shark vs reptile(fish-like dinosaurs) |
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Term
| 4 Phases of the development of Evolutionary Theory |
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Definition
1. I.D. mechanism- Darwins N.S.
2. NeoDarwinism- population genetics, testing, genetics, meiosis
3. Molecular Approach- computers, DNA sequencing
4. Evo-Devo (embryo and evolution)- found Hox genes which governs appearance which helps explain major changes in evolution |
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Term
| Polymorphism (define + example) |
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Definition
-two or more forms of discrete character in a population
-could be considered raw materials for natural selection/evolution
Examples: freckles vs non, hair, blood groups |
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Term
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Definition
| -application of population genetics(H.W.E.) to Natural Selection |
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Term
| Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium |
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Definition
-gene frequencies do not change generation to generation unless outside forces act to change them
-is the "control group" of evolution
-the larger the group, the more "normalized" the gene frequencies are
-the smaller the group, the more "chance" can change gene frequencies
-harmful/recessive alleles exist through heterozygous mating
-Outside forces: mutations, migration, mating selective mating, selection, chance, population size
Other assumptions: diploid, sexual, no generation overlap |
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Term
| Population Genetics Equation + variables |
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Definition
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
p + q = 1
p = dominant allele
q = recessive allele
N = population size
gene pool = number of alleles |
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Term
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Definition
-movement of genes between populations or within a population
-high flow = genetically similar
- little flow = genetically less similar
-Isolation = key to new specie |
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Term
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Definition
allele frequency tends to "drift" towards being lost or fixed in a population by chance alone
-Component of the "Founder Effect" |
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Term
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Definition
Successive samples taken from a mixed population will differ by chance alone
-this is important when thinking of new groups/samples being isolated
-Component of the "Founder Effect" |
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Term
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Definition
-A new population is formed (or founded) by an unrepresented genetic sample from the mother population
-two processes: Sampling error, Genetic Drift
-Only Sampling error is absolutely necessary
-This process commonly wouldn't produce an adapted organism |
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Term
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Definition
- another version of the founder effect
- a natural disaster or environment destruction leaves a small population with random alleles which typically do not represent the mother/original population
-example of this would be cheetahs inbreeding due to environmental destruction and population reduction |
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Term
| Negative Effect of Inbreeding |
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Definition
-increases homozygous and decreases heterozygous which decreases variation
-inbreeding may be favored IF: environment is VERY stable and predictable |
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Term
| Polygenic (def. + example) |
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Definition
-many genes control the expression of a single trait
Example: body size, weight |
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Term
| Pleiotropic (def. + example) |
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Definition
-a single gene affects the expression of many traits
Example: sickle-cell anemia affects RBC's which has numerous effects |
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Term
| HWE Assumption of Selection |
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Definition
- there are many potential selection agents, but organisms cannot perfectly adapt to every one
-NS favors the best combination of genes to deal with all the selecting agents |
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Term
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Definition
-removes or favors individuals near the mean of a phenotype (based on the bell shaped curve)
-Meaning~ the bell graph shifts away from the mean |
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Term
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Definition
-removes extreme phenotypes or favors individuals near mean of population(based on the bell shaped curve)
-meaning~ bell graph will become narrow and the population will be pushed to the mean |
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Term
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Definition
- selects against individuals near the mean (based on the bell shaped curve)
-the two extremes are favored, but the mean/mixed are not, resulting in two peaks with a decline in the center where the previous mean was located |
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Term
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Definition
| -selective pressures that males and females exert on each other to acquire mates |
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Term
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Definition
-selection for activities that lower an individuals personal reproduction, but increase the fitness of a relative
-seen in RELATIVES due to shared genes
- considered inclusive fitness
-Example: meercats,bees |
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Term
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Definition
-Selection where individuals sacrifice their own personal fitness for the benefit of the group to which they belong
-rare in nature because if "selfish mutants" appear they will take full advantage and overwhelm the population with their flourishing offspring |
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Term
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Definition
-changes within a species; not the creation of a new species
Examples: resistant bacteria to antibiotics, insects resistant to pesticides, batesian mimicry |
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Term
| (Crypsis or Cryptic Coloration) Mimicry |
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Definition
| - matches substrate or blends into background to escape detection |
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Term
| Warning (aposematic) Coloration |
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Definition
| -brightly colored and in high contrast to background; easily visible to predators that hunt by vision; color is associated with poor taste,sting,bite,etc |
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Term
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Definition
| - when one organism that is palatable (or does not sting , bite, etc) called the "mimic" looks like another organism that is unpalatable, which is called the "model", in order to fool some preditor(the "dupe") |
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Term
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Definition
-a palatable species evolves the warning coloration of an unpalatable species in order to escape predation
Example: Monarch(model) and Viceroy(mimic) |
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Term
| Batesian Mimicry Disadvantages (to model) |
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Definition
-if mimic is attacked first, model is likely to receive an attack
-if mimic also somewhat have an unpalatable quality, it will reduce the chance of a second encounter/attack |
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Term
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Definition
| -structures that evolved in a different context from the one where they currently function -Example: light bones formed before flight (possibly useful for speed) -NS does not anticipate future needs of an organism |
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Term
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Definition
| -when two or more species evolve in concert with each other "the arms race in nature" - cheetahs having speed and agility - antelope having widely dispersed vision and stamina -- both traits are competing |
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Term
| Sexual Selection (Male/female strategy) |
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Definition
Female:
-large energy invested, thus is choosy with male selection
-choose superior genes (handicap principle- if can survive with handicaps, he must have favorable genes)
Males:
-low energy, less choosy
-defend resources attractive to mates
-drive off/ lower other males reproductive success
-only invest additional E in offspring when absolutely necessary (survivability of offspring with 1 parent)
-Males can increase E investment by : Parental Care |
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Term
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Definition
| -when an individual lowers their own personal fitness to help, increase the fitness of, a non-relative |
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Term
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Definition
-when an individual lowers their own personal fitness to help, increase the fitness of, a non-relative **with the expectation of a returned service
-Cost must not be too large, but the benefit great
-must be able to remember
-a certain brain size seems to be required |
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Term
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Definition
| formation of a new species |
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Term
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Definition
-are entities of nature that are recognized because they could breed with each other, but not with a different species
-must be sexual and applies to vertebrates |
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Term
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Definition
| Species classified based on anatomical differences |
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Term
| Problems with "Species" Concept |
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Definition
-Asexual forms
-Sexual dimorphism
-Stage of development -larva vs adult
-geographic variation (sub-species)
-polymorphism
-Ecotypes |
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Term
| Allopatric Model of Speciation (4 phases) |
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Definition
1. local selection favors divergence (formation of a new species
- however due to Gene Flow this counteracts local selection
2. Barrier arises
-Barrier- anything preventing gene flow
3. Time
-longer the isolation the more "novel mutations" accumulate in each population
-local selection continues to operate
4. Barrier is removed
-if subspecies cannot interbreed, then speciation has occurred
- newly formed species called Sister Species
-if can breed, speciation has not occurred. |
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Term
| Allopatric Model of Speciation-Peripheral Isolates Version |
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Definition
-still based on large wide-ranging population
-difference - a very small portion of mother population becomes isolated
-this mechanism can take advantage of local selection and chance events
-founder/bottleneck effect |
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Term
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Definition
-small changes occur gradually over time
-fossils of a particular group should not change abruptly from old to young strata |
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Term
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Definition
-Peripheral isolates may allow rapid speciation
-since speciation occurred so quickly, one is unlikely to find transitional stages; should be abrupt jumps in fossil record |
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Term
| Barriers / Isolating Mechanisms (Prezygotic) |
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Definition
-geographic -- mountains/barriers
-ecological --diff niche
-temporal(seasonal) --breed at diff times
-behavioral -- calls/courtship
-mechanical -- incompatible genitalia
-biochemical -- pH levels, WBC's, etc |
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Term
| Barriers / Isolating Mechanisms (Postzygotic) |
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Definition
-operate after zygote is formed
-mismatched chromosome numbers
-hybrid infertility (sterility)
-hybrid inferiority --unlikely to survive |
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Term
| Hybridization resulting in Speciation |
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Definition
-instead of hybrid inferiority, a more adaptive organism is created
-offspring receive best adaptations from both parents and are able to survive better than their parents in parental habitats
-called Hybrid Vigor |
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Term
| Nondisjunction resulting in Speciation |
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Definition
-uneven distribution of chromosomes during meiosis
-usually prevents zygote from developing into an offspring, but rarely produces novel combinations of chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
-organisms that possess more than two sets of chromosomes
-normal = diploid; gametes = haploid |
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Term
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Definition
-Development of a viable offspring from an unfertilized egg
-adaptive in exploiting newly opened habitats
-found in many groups of plants and animals |
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Term
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Definition
-defined as, speciation without geographic isolation
Causes:
-Hybrid Vigor (superior hybrid)
-Nondisjunction (uneven chromosome distribution)
-Ecological Shifts (food,hosts,micro-habitat)
-Sexual Selection (favoring specific traits in mates) |
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Term
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Definition
-Science dealing with the study of organic diversity
-broad in scope including taxonomy, evolution, ecology, behavior, etc |
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Term
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Definition
-Practice of classifying organic diversity
-the delimiting, ranking, and ordering of taxa
-Taxon - a group of real organisms at any rank in classification
-Category- an abstract term defining the relative rank of a taxon in a classification |
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Term
| Taxonomy Main(common) Categories |
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Definition
-Domain
-Kingdom
-Phylum
-Class
-Order
-Family
-Genus
-Specie |
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Term
| Rules for Binomial Naming (Carolus von Linnaeus) |
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Definition
-first word is genus
-first letter must be capitalized
-Second word would be the epithet
-all letters in the epithet would be lower case
both together form the species name
-both words had to be italicized or underlined |
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Term
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Definition
| -evolutionary history of a group |
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Term
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Definition
| -a system of classification based on evolutionary relationships |
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Term
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Definition
-a classification that reflects phylogeny
-all likes are found in this case, which is the ideal/perfect situation |
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Term
| Artificial Classification |
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Definition
-classification not based on phylogeny
-will not reflect patterns of evolution
Example: Alphabetizing in a "dictionary" style |
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Term
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Definition
-a particular taxon has ancestor and all descendents present
-ideal and is what taxonomists want in natural classifications |
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Term
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Definition
-a particular taxon has one ancestor, but does not include all descendants
-one member unknowingly may have been placed with another taxon |
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Term
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Definition
| -a particular taxon lacks the common ancestor that unites the two(or more) groups |
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Term
| Cladistic School Classification |
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Definition
-based on only shared derived characters
-reflects blood-line descent |
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Term
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Definition
-found in all members of a particular clade(branch)
Example: hair is common to all mammals and would not help us sort giraffes from rabbits |
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Term
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Definition
-character unique to a particular clade
-hair is unique to mammals and separates them from all other vertebrates |
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Term
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Definition
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