when an atom or molecule gains an electron

NAD+ e- --> NADH

when an atom or molecule loses an electron

NADH --> NAD+ + e-

1) glycolysis

2) Kreb's Cycle (Cirtric Acid Cycle)

3) oxidative phosphorylation

2 NAD+ are reduced to NADH

4 ADP are physphorylated to ATP

pyruvate is formed (2 per 1 glucose)

production of ATP by transfer of a phosphate group from intermediate substrate directly to ADP.  An enzyme catalyzed phosphorylation reaction.

occurs during glycolysis and Kreb's cycle

energy investment: -2 ATP

energy payoff: +4 ATP and +2 NADH

= 2 ATP, 2 NADH and 2 pyruvate

pyruvate converted to acetyl CoA with assistance from coenzyme A (CoA)

releases CO2

1 molecule of NADH is generated/ pyruvate

extracts energy from pyruvate

occurs in mitochondrial matri (euks)

cytosol (proks)

8 total steps

2 CO₂

3 NADH

1 ATP

1 FADH₂

(x2 for 2 cycles per 1 glucose)

order: CO₂ & NADH, CO₂ & NADH, ATP, FADH₂, NADH

uses energy in NADH and FADH₂'s electrons to generate ATP via oxudataive phosphorylation

1) NADH & FADH₂ donates 2 electrons

2) electrons transferred along chain

3) O₂ final electron acceptor

electron transport chain

complex I

1) NADH is oxidized to NAD⁺

2) energy released from rxn pumps protons into lumen

3) Q transfers e^- to complex III

electron transport chain 

complex II

1) FADH₂ is oxidized to FAD

2) energy released used to pump H⁺ into lumen

3) Q transfers e^- to complex III

electron transport chain 

complex III

Q delivers e^_- and H⁺

electronegativity increases at each complex

electron transport chain

complex IV

1) cytochrome C transports e- from complex III to complex IV

2) more H⁺ are pumped into lumen

3) O2 accepts e^_- to form water

4) creates H⁺ gradient

1) proton gradient drives "motor"

2) H⁺ flow from high to low concentration through ATP synthase

3) 26 ATP synthesized per glucose

regenerates NAD⁺ from NADH and allows glycolysis to continue making ATP in the absence of O₂

 (2 NADH -> 2 NAD⁺)

2 pyruvate -----> by-product

the synthesis of proteins, carbs, fats.

used as storage

the conversion of light energy to chemical energy stored in the bonds of carbohydrates

occur in chroloplasts or plasma membrane/ cytosol

stroma- vacant area within chloroplast

granum- stack of thylakoids

thylakoids- vesicle-like structures

lumen- inside of thylakoid

thylakoid membrane- contains pigment molecule that absorbs light energy and transfers that energy into electrons

1) photons of light excite e-s from chlorophylls of P680 rxn center

2)excited e-s are passed to pheophytin (e- acceptor)

3) pheophytin transfer e- to PQ

4) e- flow down ETC to cytochrome complex. PQ carries e^-s from PS II along with protons

6) H+released into thylakoid lumen

7)high [H+] causes flow through ATP synthase

1) e^-s excited @ P700 rxn center or from PC (from PSII)

2) flow down ETC to ferredoxin

3) ferredoxin donates e- to for rxn: NADP+ --> NADPH

produces ATP

1) PQ -->(ETC to make ATP) cystochrome complex --> PC --> P700 (excited e-) --> (ETC) ferredoxin

--> PQ

substrate-level phosphorylation

oxidative phosphorylation

photophosphorylation

1) carbon fixation

2) reduction

3) regeneration of CO2 Acceptor

addition of CO2 to 5-carbon sugar by Rubisco and ribulose biphosphate (RuBP)

forms 2 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (G3P)

1st step in calvin cycle

addition of e-s to generate 2, 3-carbon sugars

use 6 ATP and 6 NADPH

1 G3P sent as output

the rest of G3P keeps the cycle going by serving as substrate for 3rd phase in cycle

regenerate RuBP with addition of 3 ATP

portion of DNA that encodes a protein (RNA) product

unit of inheritance that determines traits or characteristics

deoxyribonucleic acid

substance of genes and directs its own replication

genetic material is located in chromosomes

chromosomes contain only DNA and protein

1) transformation of Strepoccocus

2) DNA component of T2 virus injected into host cell

3) DNA content doubles prior to cell division (and is halved by mitosis)

no hypothesis

injected mice with different strains of streptococcus

R strain (non pathogenic) S strain (pathogenic)

conc: R strain is benign, S strain is virulent, heat killed S strain, R strain transformed to S strain when added to heated S strain

Avery, McCarthy, Maclead Experiment

What is the Transforming Factor?

removed either protein, RNA, or DNA from 1 of three cultures

observed which culture was transformed

conc: DNA is the transforming factor

viral genes DNA or protein?

viruses either had radioactive P (DNA) or S (protein)

DNA in centrifuged pellet, protein in supernant

conc: viral genes consist of DNA, viral coats are proteins

A-T = 2 hydrogen bonds

G-C = 3 hydrogen bonds

long anticipated hypothesis that info in cells flows in one direction: DNA -> RNA -> proteins

yet there are exceptions

semi-conservative vs. conservative vs. dispersive

(1 new, 1 old strand vs. 1 new double helix, 1 old vs. mixtures of new and old)

1) DNA is opened, unwound, and primed

2) starts at 3' end of template

3) DNA polymerase III synthesizes 5' -> 3' of new strand

1) primase synthesies RNA primer

2)DNA poymerase III synthesizes okazaki fragment

3) primase and DNA polymerase III synthesize another okazaki fragment

4) DNA polymerase I removes primer and extends

5) DNA ligase closes gap with phosphodiester bonds

telomerase replication:

1) extends unreplicated end twice

2) primase, DNA polymerase and ligase synthesize lagging strand to restore length

1) nucleosomes- DNA wrapped around histone proteins

2) higher levels- coiling, loops

3) further packing produces metaphase chromosomes

1) initation

2) elongation

3) termination

transcription factors racognize and bind to DNA @ promotor

RNA polymerase binds, unwinds, and synthesizes

only one DNA template is used for base-pairing (3' end) 5' -> 3' end of new RNA strand

A pairs with U

RNa polymerase stops adding rNTPs and RNA chain is released

occurs at specific site for each gene

RNA polymerase binds to sigma which guides to specific locations to start transcription (promotors)

RNA polymerase synthesizes new strand

termination triggered by hairpin loop

add 5' phosphate cap and 3' AAA tail

remove introns

snRNPs- small nuclear ribonucleproteins bind at exon-intron boundry

RNA breaks at A

intron is cut in primary transcript (spliceosome)

exons ends bond covalently

short RNAs with intramolecular base pairing

anticodon base pairs with condon on mRNA

one end is attached to specific amino acid

Crick- the anticodon of tRNAs can bind successfully to a codon whose 3rd position requires a nonstandard base pairing

tRNA can base pair with >1 type of codon

60% RNA, 40% protein

1 mRNA binding site, 3 tRNA binding sites (E,P,A)

lg subunit

small subunit

sm subunit binds to 5' end of mRNA

initiator amionacyl tRNA binds to start codon

lg subunit of ribosome binds

incoming tRNA, new tRNA to A site, antibind with codon, old tRNA to P site

translocation- ribosome moves down mRNA

E site exits

when ribisome encounters a stop codon in A site

polypeptide is cleaved from A site

subunits dissociate