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| the scientific study of living things |
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| change in the genetic makeup of biological populations through time |
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| differential survival and reproduction among individuals in a population (survival of the fittest) |
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| a group of organisms that can produce viable and fertile offspring |
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(Living organisms)
consist of one or more cells; contain genetic information; use genetic information to reproduce themselves; are genetically related and have evolved; can convert molecules in their environment into new biological molecules; can extract energy from the environment and use it to do work; can regulate their internal environment |
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| structural, physiological, or behavioral traits that enhance an organism's chances of survival and reproduction in its environment |
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| the sum total of all DNA molecules (genetic information) a cell contains |
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| DNA - Deoxyribonucleic Acid |
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| a double stranded, helical structure composed of long sequences of four different subunits called nucleotides which contain the genetic information in a cell |
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| specific segments of DNA encoding the information the cell uses to make proteins |
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| large molecules that govern the chemical reactions within cells and form much of an organism's structure |
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the sum total of all the chemical transformations and other work done in all the cells of an organism
(breaking things down to get what the body needs) |
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| Atom - Molecule - Cell - Tissue - Organ - Organ System - Organism - Population - Community - Ecosystem - Biosphere |
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-chemical reactions formed organic molecule
-combined with a barrier to form prokaryote
-photosynthesis started
-eukaryotes arose
-then came multicellular organisms |
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Genus comes first and is capitilized
species come second
both are italisized |
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| manipulates one or more of the factors being tested from similar groups |
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| compares unmanipulated data gathered from different sources |
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| Differences Between Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons in an Atom |
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Electons: negatively charged; orbit around the nucleus; are the component of an atom
Protons: positively charged; inside nucleus
Neutrons: neutral charge; inside nucleus |
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| a pure substance that contains only one type of atom |
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| the number of protons; does not change |
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| the total number of protons and neutrons inside the nucleus |
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forms when two atoms attain stable electron numbers in their outermost shells by SHARING one or more pairs of electrons
non-metals to non-metals |
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| two atoms that are close to each other in electronegativity will share electrons equally |
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| electrons shared in a compound tend to be nearer to the nucleus of the more electronegative element |
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electrically charged particles that form when atoms gain or lose one or more electrons
cations: positively charged ions
anions: negatively charged ions |
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| formed as a result of the electrical attraction between ions bearing opposite charges |
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-exists in solid, liquid, and gas forms.
-allows chemical reactions to occur in living organisms
-necessary for the formation of certain biological structures
-polar molecule, forms hydrogen bonds
-very unique (tetrahedral) structure
-can dissolve many substances (universal solution)
-high specific heat |
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substances that RELEASE hydrogen (H+) ions*
pH < 7
*single, positively charged protons |
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substances that ACCEPT hydrogen ions*
when added to water, release OH-
pH > 7
*single, positively charged protons |
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| biological molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids that are made up of monomers |
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| chemical groups in the monomers of macromolecules that determines its function and how it interacts with other molecules |
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have different arrangements of the same atoms.
these are molecules that have the same chemical formula but the atoms are arranged differently
structural - differ in how their atoms are joined together
optical - mirror images of each other |
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series of reactions that construct polymers from monomers
refers to the loss of water
results in covalent bonds between monomers which essentially construct the polymer |
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| polymers are broken into monomers because of the addition of water. |
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polymers made up of different proportions and sequences of 20 amino acids
consist of one or more polypeptide chains - linear polymer of covalently linked amino acids, which are the building blocks of these. |
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Primary - the precise sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain held together by peptide linkages
Secondary - two types: alpha helix and beta pleated sheet
Tertiary - secondary structure folded back and forth
Quaternary - several subunits of tertiary structure binded together |
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| covalent bonding of monosaccharides which in turn results in disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and poylsaccharides |
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composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio
provide energy and structure to cells
connected by glycosidic linkages |
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also called fats, these are hydrocarbons that are insoluble in water because of their many nonpolar covalent bonds
several types:
-fats and oils store energy
-phospolipids play important structural roles in cell membranes
-carotenoids and chlorophylls help plants capture light energy
-steroids play regulatory roles as hormones and vitamins
-fat in animals serves as thermal insulation
-a lipid coating around nerves provides electrical insulation
-oil or wax repels water |
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| glycerol head with 3 fatty acid tails |
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Saturated - all bonds are single bonds
Unsaturated - contains one or more double bonds |
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| have a hydrophillic head of choline and phosphate and a hydrophobic tail made of glycerol and hydrocarbon chains |
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| Miller and Urey Experiment |
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| practically simulated the beginning of Earth by passing an electric spark to an atmosphere of primitive gases. The reaction produced complex molecules such as amino acids, purines, and pyrimidines |
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| Surface Area to Volume Ratio |
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volume increases at a much faster rate than surface area does
basically, as surface area increases, volume decreases
larger organism = smaller ratio |
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| drives prokaryotic organisms with a corkscrew shape. |
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| hairlike structures that project from the surface of bacterial cells |
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includes plasma membrane, nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes
it is an interconnected system for transportation |
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| a function of the receptor itself and occurs at the plasma membrane; interaction between signal and receptor results in cellular response |
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| a second messenger diffuses into the cytoplasm and mediates additional steps in the signal transduction pathway |
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| reactions that link simple molecules to FORM more complex molecules |
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| reactions that break down complex molecules into simpler ones and release the energy stored in chemical bonds |
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| The First Law of Thermodynamics |
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| energy is neither created nor destroyed |
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| The Second Law of Thermodynamics |
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states that when energy is converted from one form to another some of that energy is lost to work
= entropy |
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total energy, enthalpy (H) =
free energy (G) + Entropy (S) times temp (T)
H = G + TS |
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| reactions that release free energy |
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| reactions that require or consume free energy |
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-orient substrates
-induce strain on the substrate
-temporarily add chemical groups to substrates |
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takes place in the cytosol
it converts glucose into pyruvate and in the process produces a small amount of energy
the ten enzyme catalyzed reactions of this result in the net production of two pyruvate molecules, two ATP molecules, and two NADPH molecules |
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linked to glycolysis by pyruvate oxidation
this pathway of eight reactions completely oxidizes the two-carbon acetyl group to two molecules of carbon dioxide |
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the eventual outcome of this process is ATP.
ATP is made by chemiosmosis across an ATP synthase at the end of this chain.
this chain transports electrons across it, making opening for hydrogen particles to cross which play a large role in chemiosmosis and ATP production |
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