1. UGA
2. UAA
3. UAG

1. mRNA- code is read from this
2. ribosomes- the factories for translation
3. tRNA
4. rRNA

• produced by transcription
• contain codons that are read and fed into that code
• can have secondary structure that affect stability and how well it can be translated

• part protein, part RNA complexes that work to decode and catalyze peptide bond synthesis
• prokaryote- ribosomes are smaller in proteins size and RNA size
• each ribosome has 3 active sites: P,A,E

• has 3 stem loops (cloverleaf) that interact with each other to form tertiary structure
• one side is the amino acid bonding site
• on the other end is the anticodon
• part of the decoding portion of translation

1. scans the incoming messenger RNA for the correct site to start translating
2. helps for the peptide bonds

1. initiation
2. elongation
3. termination

• the binding of the small subunit of the ribosomes to the 5' untranslated region (UTR) at the start of the mRNA
• the small subunit scan until it located the start codon
• the first tRNA will lock onto the mRNA and the large subunit binds to the small with the first tRNA sitting in the p site

a sequence in prokaryotes that are complementary to the r RNA sequence sitting in the small subunit of the ribosome and is directly upstream of the start condone

-the first tRNA plugs into be complementary to that start codon on the SDS

1. A new tRNA hydrogen bonds with the mRNA
2. a peptide bond is formed between the amino acids that are sitting next to each other and that growing chain is transferred to the tRNA that is sitting in the A site
3. The ribosomes moves as that the first tRNA is now in the E site, the second tRNA is in the P site and A site is empty
4. the tRNA in the E site leaves
5. repeats unto it encounters a stop codon

can be translated all over again

- translation does not even have to be complete before a second or third ribosome begins at the start sire

1. how often the gene is even transcribed into RNA- has to be processed correctly
2. use alternative splicing to produce different mRNA from the same transcript
3. control the stability of the mRNA- long or short life? how many proteins are made form it?
4. whether or not the transcription machinery even has access to the gene
5. there is control over the chromatin and its structures- modifying to make the chromatin open or closed

females will randomly turn off one of their X's off permanently

- happens when embryo is more than one cell but not that many

-which X is truned off is random in EACH cell (mom vs dad

no

- just part of life

1. somatic tissues (tissue that builds the body)
2. no inherited

- in reproductive cells

-can be inherited

1. silent mutations
2. Missense mutaiton
3. nonsense mutation

1. nucleotide sequence changes however due to redundancy in the genetic code, the amino acid coded for remains the same
2. have no effect on the protein level and are only really found if someone is sequencing DNA

the nucleotide sequence changes does change the amino acid sequence

-causes changes in protein level that will very in severity

the nucleotide sequence changes and goes from coding for an amino acid to a stop codon

- cause the protein to be shorter in length

- how far into the coding sequence will affect how great the effect ison the protein itself

where the ribosomes only read in increments of three nucleotides

- doesn't interpret what it is translating, just plugs in matching tRNA

it can cause a stop Condon to be introduced early 

- or it can lose a stop condone entirely and the protein continues on for much longer

• pathogenic toxins
• UV light
• industrial chemicals
• x-rays
• tobacco smoke and nicotine

if there are two thymine's next to each other, the UV creates a double bond between them to form a thymidine dimer

- causes distortion of the DNA so when cell tries to replicate DNA, the two thymine's get jumped over causing a frameshift

1. color blindness
2. cystic fibrosis
3. sickle cell disease