Term
| Does heredity influence facial expressions? |
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Definition
| Yes, people that are born blind and ,therefore could not of learned facial expressions from imitation, facial expressions were remarkably similar to those of their sighted relatives. |
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Term
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Definition
| Units of heredity that maintain their structural identity from one generation to another |
|
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Term
| Where are the pairs of genes aligned on? |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| strands of genes which come in pairs(w/ the exception of male mammals who have an unpaired X and Y chromosome with different genes |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-a portion of the chromosome
-double stranded
-DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid |
|
|
Term
| What does DNA serve as a template for? |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
-Ribonuleic Acid
-RNA is a single strand chemical |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Biological catalysts that regulates chemical reactions in the body |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Anyone with an identical pair of genes on the two chromosomes
-usually related only for a particular gene |
|
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Term
|
Definition
An individual with an unmatched pair of genes
-for a particular gene |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| shows a strong effect in either the homozygous or heterozygous condition |
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Term
|
Definition
| Gene shows its effect only in the homozygous condition (gene traits only exist in a heterozygous pair) |
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Term
| Suppose you have high sensitivity to tasting PTC(phenylthiocarbamide). If your mother can also taste it easily, what (if anything) can you predict about your father's ability to taste it? |
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Definition
| If your mother has high sensitivity to the taste of PTC, we can make no predictions about your father. You may have inherited a high-sensitivity from your mother, and because the gene is dominant, you need only one copy of the gene to taste PTC. |
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Term
| Suppose you have high sensitivity to the taste of PTC. If your mother has low sensitivity, what (if anything) can you predict about your father? |
|
Definition
| If your mother has low sensitivity, you must have inherited your high sensitivity gen from your father, so he must have high sensitivity. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Genes located on the sex chromosomes |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| All other chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes are called autosomal chromosomes and their genes are called autosomal genes |
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Term
|
Definition
Present in both sexes, generally on autosomal chromosomes, but active mainly in one sex(EX. Chest hair in men, breast size in woman)
-Both sexes have these genes but sex hormones activate them primarily in one sex or the other |
|
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Term
| How does a sex-linked gene differ from a sex-limited gene? |
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Definition
| A sex-linked gene is on a sex chromosome (usually the x chromosome). A sex-limited gene could be on any chromosome, but is activated by sex hormones and therefore shows its effect only in one sex or the other |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| If the variation in some characteristics depend largely on genetic differences |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| If genetic or prenatal influences produce even a small increase in some activity, the early tendency will change the environment in a way that magnifies that tendency with a change of effects. |
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Term
| Adopted children whose biological parents were alcoholics have an increased probability of becoming alcoholics themselves. One possible explanation is heredity. What is another? |
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Definition
| If the mother drank much alcohol during pregnancy the prenatal environment may have predisposed the child to later alcoholism. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Phenylketonuria is a genetic inabillity to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine. |
|
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Term
| What are the effects of not treating PKU? |
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Definition
| Phenylalanine accumulates to toxic levels, impairing brain development and leaving children mentally retarded, restless, and irritable |
|
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Term
| Can we modify heritable traits? |
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Definition
| Yes, our abillity to prevent PKU provides particularly strong evidence that heritable does not mean unmodifiable. |
|
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Term
| What example illustrates the point that even if some characteristic is highly heritable, a change in the environment can alter it? |
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Definition
| Keeping a child with the PKU gene on a strict low-phenylalanine diet prevents the mental retardation that the gene ordinarily causes. The general point is that sometimes a highly heritable condition can be modified environmentally. |
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Term
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Definition
| is a change over generations in the frequencies of various genes in a population |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Choosing individuals with a desired trait and make them the parents of the next generation |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| evolution through the inheritance of acquired characteristics(no evidence that this occurs) |
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Term
| Many people believe the human appendix is useless. Will it become smaller and smaller with each generation? |
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Definition
| No. Failure to use or need a structure does not make it become smaller in the next generation. The appendix will shrink only if people with a gene for a smaller appendix reproduce more successfully than other people do. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| deals with how behaviors have evolved, specifically social behaviors |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| an action that benefits someone other than the actor |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| According to this idea, altruistic groups survive better than less cooperative one |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the idea that individuals help those who will return the favor |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Selection for a gene that benefits the individual's relatives |
|
|
Term
| What are two plausible ways for possible altruistic genes to spread in a population? |
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Definition
| Altruistic genes could spread becuase they facilitate care for one's kin or because they facilitat exchanges of favors with others (reciprocal altruism). Group selection may also work under some circumstances, especially if the cooperative group has some way to punish or expel an uncoorperative individual |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the number of copies of one's genes that endure in latter generations |
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Term
|
Definition
| a difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the cell |
|
|
Term
| What maintains an electrical gradient in a neuron? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does the fatty acid inner and outer layer of the membrane provide the it with? |
|
Definition
| This structure provides it with a good combination of flexibility and firmness and retards the flow of chemicals between the inside and the outside of the cell |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| a difference in electrical charge between two locations. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| The difference in voltage in a resting neuron is called the resting potential. The resting potential is mainly the result of a negatively charged proteins inside the cell. |
|
|
Term
| How can researchers measure a cells resting potential? |
|
Definition
| They can measure by sticking an microelectrode into the cell body |
|
|
Term
| How many millivolts is a typical neuron interior? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Some chemicals can pass through it more freely than others can. (Similar process of the blood brain barrier.) |
|
|
Term
| What ions normally can not go through the selectively permeable membrane? And what can cross freely through always open channels? |
|
Definition
| Most large or electrically charged ions and molecules cannot cross the membrane at all. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, urea, and water cross freely though channels that are always open. |
|
|
Term
| What ions pass through voltage gated channels and gated channels? |
|
Definition
| Sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride, cross through the membrane gated channels. These channels are sometimes open and sometimes closed. |
|
|
Term
| When the membrane is at rest, what position is the sodium voltage gated channels in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When the cell is at rest, what position is the voltage gated potassium channels in? |
|
Definition
| Potassium voltage gated channels are nearly closed, but not entirely closed, so potassium can flow somewhat freely. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| A protein complex, repeatedly transports three sodium ions out of the cell while drawing two potassium ions into it. |
|
|
Term
| Where are the highest concentrations of potassium and sodium? |
|
Definition
| Sodium ions are more than 10 times more concentrated outside the membrane than inside, and potassium ions are similarly more concentrated inside than outside? |
|
|
Term
| Name two ways potassium leaves a cell and two ways in enters? |
|
Definition
| Potassium can leave the cell because of a high concentration gradient forcing potassium out of the cell, or it can leave and enter through the sodium-potassium pump. Potassium can also enter through electrical gradient. |
|
|
Term
| Electrical Gradient in relations to Sodium |
|
Definition
| Sodium is positively charged and the inside of the cell is negatvely charged. Opposite electrical charges attract, so the electrical gradient tends to pull sodium into the cell |
|
|
Term
| Concentration Gradient in relations to sodium |
|
Definition
| the difference in distribution of ions across the membrane. Sodium is more concentrated outside than inside, so just by the law of probability, sodium is more likely to enter the cell than leave it. |
|
|
Term
| When the membrane is at rest, are the sodium ions more concentrated inside the cell or outside? Where are the potassium ions more concentrated? |
|
Definition
| Sodium ions are more concentrated outside the cell; potassium is more concentrated on the inside. |
|
|
Term
| When The membrane is at rest, what tends to drive the potassium ions out of the cell? What tends to draw them back in again? |
|
Definition
| When the membrane is at rest, the concentration gradient tends to drive potassium ions out of the cell; the electrical gradient draws them into the cell. The sodium potassium pump also draws them into the cell. |
|
|
Term
| The body invest a lot of energy to operate the sodium-potassium pump, which maintains resting potential. Why is it worth so much energy? |
|
Definition
| Because the resting potential prepares the neuron to respond rapidly |
|
|
Term
| Where does stimulation of a neuron ordinarily take place? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| increasing the negative charge inside a neuron, or increased polarization |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reduce the polarization toward zero |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| When there is a depolarization that is strong enough to cause an action potential in a neuron. |
|
|
Term
| What happens when potential reaches the threshold? |
|
Definition
| The membrane suddenly opens its voltage gated sodium channels and permits a rapid flow of ions across the membrane. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| any stimulation that produces a small response proportional to the amount of current |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A rapid depolarization and slight reversal of the usual polarization |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between hyperpolarization and depolarization? |
|
Definition
| A hperpolarization is an exaggeration of the usual negative charge within a cell(to a more negative level than usual). A depolarization is a decrease in the amount of negative charge within the cell. |
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|
Term
| What is the relationship between the threshold and an action potential? |
|
Definition
| A depolarization that passes the threshold produces an action potential. One that falls short of the threshold does not produce an action potential. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| membrane channels whose permeadbility depends on the voltage difference across the membrane. At the resting potential, the channels are closed. As the membrane becomes depolarized, the sodium channels begin to open and sodium flows freely. If the depolarization is less than the threshold, sodium cross the membrane only slightly more than normal. |
|
|
Term
| At the peak of an action potential where are sodium ions more concentrated? |
|
Definition
| Fewer than 1% of the sodium ions cross the membrane during an action potential, meaning that sodium is still more concentrated on the outside of a cell. |
|
|
Term
| What happens to the voltage gated sodium channels at the peak of an action potential? |
|
Definition
| At the peak of an action potential the sodium gates quickly close and resist reopening for about the next millisecond. |
|
|
Term
| After the peak of the action potential, what brings the membrane back to its original state of polarization? |
|
Definition
| The sodium-potassium pump is to slow so the cell opens up voltage gated potassium channels and the voltage gated chloride channels open |
|
|
Term
| What do local anesthetic drugs such as novocain, xylocain do? |
|
Definition
| They attach to the sodium channels of the membrane, preventing sodium ions from entering. There by preventing an action potential. |
|
|
Term
| During the rise of the action potential, do sodium ions move into the cell or out of it? Why? |
|
Definition
| During the action potential, sodium ions move into the cell. The voltage-dependent sodium gates have opened, so sodium can move freely. Sodium is attracted to the inside of the cell by both and electrical and a concentration gradient. |
|
|
Term
| As the membrane reaches the peal pf the action potential, what ionic movement brings the potential down to the original resting potential? |
|
Definition
| After the peak of the action potential, potassium ions exit the cell, driving the membrane back to the resting potential. ( the sodium-potassium pump is not the answer here; it is too slow.) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The amplitude and velocity of an action potential are independent of the intensity of the stimulus that initiated it. |
|
|
Term
| Where are the amplitude, velocity, and shape of an action potential consistent? |
|
Definition
| The amplitude, velocity, and shape are consistent over time for a given axon, but they vary from neuron to neuron. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Immediately after an action potential, the cell enters a refractory period during which it resists the production of further action potentials. |
|
|
Term
| Absolute refractory period |
|
Definition
| The first part of the refractory period in which the membrane cannot produce an action potential regardless of the stimulation. |
|
|
Term
| Relative refractory period |
|
Definition
| During the second part of the refractory period in which a stronger than usual stimulus is necessary to initiate an action potential. |
|
|
Term
| What are the two mechanisms behind the refractory period? |
|
Definition
| The voltage gated sodium channels are closed, and the potassium is flowing out of the cell at a faster than usual rate. |
|
|
Term
| State the all-or-none law. |
|
Definition
| According to the all-or-none law, the size and shape of the action potential are independent of the intensity of the stimulus that initiated it. That is, every depolarization beyond the threshold of excitation produces an action potential of about the same amplitude and velocity for a given axon. |
|
|
Term
| Does the all-or-none law apply to dendrites? Why or Why not? |
|
Definition
| The all-or-none law does not apply to dendrites because they do not have action potentials. |
|
|
Term
| Suppose researchers find that axon A can produce up to 1000 action potentials per second(at least briefly, with maximum stimulation), but axon B can never produce more than 100 per second (regardless of the strength of the stimulus). What could we conclude about the refractory periods of the two axons? |
|
Definition
| Axon A must have a shorter absolute refractory period, about 1ms, whereas axon B has a longer absolute refractory period of about 10ms. |
|
|
Term
| Where does an action potential begin on a motor neuron? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A swelling where the axon exits the soma |
|
|
Term
| Where do neural tubes develop from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens at two weeks in brain development? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens at seven weeks in brain development? |
|
Definition
| The hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain distinguish |
|
|
Term
| What happens at the third trimester in brain development? |
|
Definition
| (6-7months) the cortex layering beings formation |
|
|
Term
| What happens at birth in brain development? |
|
Definition
| Brain weighs 350g and still is developing |
|
|
Term
| What happens at 9 months postnatal in brain development? |
|
Definition
| The frontal cortex development allows "object permanence" |
|
|
Term
| What happens at the end of the first year in brain development? |
|
Definition
| Brain weighs 1000g, close to adult weight(1200-1400g) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
new neurons divide from “stem cells” typically situated in central regions
(The production of new cells) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
neurons crawl and extend filopodia of neurites (axon precursors) seeking new connections
(After cells have differentiated as neurons or glia, the migrate/move. Some neurons migrate much faster than others and a few of the slowest don't reach their final destination until adulthood.) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| (PSGE) soma branches to form dendrites while axon extends… distinctive shapes |
|
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Term
|
Definition
myelinating glia wrap around extending axons
-Process by which glia produce the insulating fatty sheaths that accelerate transmission in many vertebrate axons |
|
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Term
|
Definition
synaptic connections are formed with target regions
-Although this process begins before birth, it continues throughout life, as neurons form new synapses and discard old ones. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 stages of neuron development? |
|
Definition
1)Proliferation
2)Migration
3)Differentiation
4)Myelination
5)Synaptogenesis |
|
|
Term
| How often are olfactory receptor cells replaced in mammals? |
|
Definition
| approximately every 90 days |
|
|
Term
| How do olfactory receptors get replaced? |
|
Definition
| Stem Cells at the sub-ventricular zone and around the olfactory area reproduce and migrate |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Chemical gradients that growing neurites grow toward |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Chemical gradients that growing neurites avoid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Chemicals that promote the survival and activity of neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chemicals that increase metabolism, excitability, and efficiency |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chemicals that ensure the survival of neurons (some competition for these factors) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
They reversed a newts eyes to see where the axons from the eyes would go to.Connections in the newt grew back to their original target homes
Rather than targets representing the world area perceived from the new retinal location
Therefore it was likely chemical gradients were involved in routing |
|
|
Term
| Retinal ganglion cells originating at the dorsal region of the retina proceed to the ________ portion of the newt tectum. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is a “sex-limited gene?” Do both sexes have these genes and express them? |
|
Definition
| This is a gene that both males and females carry, but is only activated into expression in one sex, typically by hormones. |
|
|
Term
| The work of Rita Levi-Montalcini indicated that nerve growth factor prevented apoptosis in certain neuron populations. What is apoptosis? |
|
Definition
| Apoptosis refers to “programmed cell death” and essentially means a neuron will activate a series of genetic responses that eventually lead to its demise in the absence of certain external stimuli. |
|
|
Term
| What is the series of mostly “ess” containing words that describe how development leads to cell types? (4 word phrase: ____ ____ of ____ _____). |
|
Definition
| Progressive Suppression of Genetic Expression |
|
|
Term
| What happens when blind individuals have their occipital cortex inactivated by transcranial magnetic stimulation that differs from when the same area is inactivated in sighted people? |
|
Definition
| This action will interfere with their ability to read Braille and perform other tactile discriminations, something that does not occur when the same region is inactivated in sighted people. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
relaxed-polarized, (at rest)
agitated-depolarized, (excited)
firing impulse or action potential (spouting off) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Like charges repel, unlike charges attract |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Pressure that pushes = voltage (potential) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Chemicals free to wander fill a space evenly |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
blocks selectively the voltage-gated Na+ conductance by physically blocking
Na+ channels. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Absolute refractory period dictates neurons -----? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The __________ is a necessary part of v-gated sodium channels to force propagation in one direction. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where are most of the sodium ions located when a neuron is “at rest” and not firing action potentials and where do gradients push them? |
|
Definition
| Most of the sodium ions are located outside the membrane and gradients are pushing them towards the inside of the membrane while neurons are at rest. |
|
|
Term
| The time following one action potential before another action potential can occur is called the ___________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How do local anesthetic drugs such as Novocaine and Xylocaine prevent pain messages from reaching the brain? |
|
Definition
| These substances block the sodium channels involved in action potentials and so prevent the local sensory neurons from carrying pain information towards the central nervous system or the brain. |
|
|
Term
| Subthreshold depolarizations are graded while action potentials are _______________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Neuron electrical impulses are driven by |
|
Definition
| concentration and charge gradients (primarily sodium and potassium), and special voltage-dependant channels |
|
|
Term
| Benefits of Saltatory Conduction |
|
Definition
Less Na+ to pump back out
Less Na+/K+ pumps to express
Less voltage-dependant Na+ or K+ ion channels to express
Only at node of Ranvier
Dramatically increased speed
Squid giant axon 500μm, unmyelinated speed of 35 m/sec
Fastest myelinated axon 20μm, speed of 120 m/sec |
|
|
Term
| What does the opening of voltage dependent sodium channels propagate? |
|
Definition
| Action Potential Moving down the axon |
|
|
Term
| What does opening of the voltage dependent calcium channels initiate? |
|
Definition
| docking and release of neurotransmitter from vesicles |
|
|
Term
| What aspect of a fiber-optic cable acts in a manner analogous to the myelin surrounding neuron axons? |
|
Definition
| The reflective coating surrounding the inner core acts analogously to the myelin sheath as it reflects light back into the core while the myelin sheath reflects charged current into the “cable” or cytoplasm making it travel farther in the cable rather activating voltage-gated channels. |
|
|
Term
| For an action potential to transmit, what is the limiting factor regarding the distance between the nodes of Ranvier? |
|
Definition
| The distance between nodes of Ranvier must not be so far apart that the strength of a voltage change dissipates by resistance before reaching the next node. If too much dissipation occurs, the voltage change at the next node will be insufficient to activate the voltage-gated channels and perpetuate the signal. |
|
|
Term
| What happens to a rat immunized with myelin basic protein (what cell types are attacked and what happens to behavior)? |
|
Definition
| Its myelin sheath-producing cells (mostly Schwann cells but perhaps some oligodendrocytes) will be attacked and as these are destroyed the animal will become paralyzed. |
|
|
Term
| The small bubbles of membrane found within the axon terminal are called ________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is wrong with the “shiverer” mouse? |
|
Definition
| A shiverer mouse has disruptions in the gene that produces myelin basic protein such that this protein is incapable of performing its role within the myelin sheath properly so mice have a shake to their movements due to improperly timed action potentials to their muscles. |
|
|
Term
| EPSP: Excitatory Post Synaptic potential |
|
Definition
| Neurotransmitter causes local, graded depolarization on the postsynaptic neuron |
|
|
Term
| IPSP: Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential |
|
Definition
| Neurotransmitter causes local, graded hyperpolarization on the postsynaptic neuron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the amount of neurotransmitter stored in a single synaptic vesicle, thus the lowest level potential postsynaptic effect |
|
|
Term
| Differences between neurochemicals |
|
Definition
They are produced from different raw materials at different places in the neuron
Some work quickly to depolarize or hyperpolarize, others work more slowly
Some directly open ion channels
Some initiate an intracellular cascade of events
Their effects on the “postsynaptic” membrane are stopped in different ways
Direct metabolism by enzymes after release
Reuptake transport by ATP-driven pumps
Some are capable of diffusing more than others |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Amino acids, which contain an amine group
Peptides: long chains of amino acids, including polypeptides and proteins
Acetylcholine: made from choline, essential nutrient in diet
Monoamines: non-acidic neurotransmitters containing an amine group
Purines: category of chemical including adenosine and several of its derivatives
Gases: nitric oxide and maybe others |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Released into bloodstream
More global body control
Multiple sites of action
Often nuclear actions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Released from neurons to general extracellular space
Not restricted to axonal release
Typically after higher activity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a drug that mimics or increases the effects of a neurotransmitter |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a drug that blocks or takes away from the effects of the neurotransmitter |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ability of a drug to bind a receptor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the degree to which the drug activates the receptor once bound |
|
|
Term
| Two types of “summation” were discussed. One requires multiple axon terminals from different sources to converge on a single neuron while the other can function with a single synapse. Distinguish between these two types of summation using approximately a sentence for each. |
|
Definition
| Temporal summation requires that depolarizing input arise from a single source but rapidly enough that the influence of one synaptic activation will be lingering when the subsequent activations arise, and they build up to threshold. Spatial summation requires that several different terminals arising from different sources arrive at the same neuron, converging their activating inputs relatively simultaneously such that their combined depolarizing influences merge and cause the neuron membrane to reach threshold. |
|
|
Term
| Where are the taste buds located on the tongue? |
|
Definition
| On the tip, sides, and back of tongue |
|
|
Term
| What type of receptors the the center of the tongue have? |
|
Definition
| The center of the tongue has somatosensory(texture) receptors |
|
|
Term
| How often are the taste buds replaced? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Sweet (sugar, fruit ripe?)
Salty (sodium, we seek salt for fluid balance)
Sour (acidic, many spoiled foods)
Bitter (alkaloids in plants often poisonous)
Amino Acids, umami (glutamate, aspartate) |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between taste and flavor? |
|
Definition
| We can only taste 5 different things where flavor is a combination of taste and smell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fraction of drug that reaches the target destination of action (if reachable through bloodstream, then plasma content) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Drug that binds to a receptor and causes a similar effect as the neurotransmitter |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| competes with transmitter for same binding site |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| binds to a different site on receptor and due to conformational change influences transmitter effect |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Drug that binds to a receptor and blocks the action of neurotransmitters or other drugs (agonists) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| binds to receptor at the same site as the transmitter but has no inherent effect when bound |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| binds noncompetitively and causes a conformational change or receptor destruction resulting in blocked signal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| binds to receptor but only causes a transmitter-like effect partially |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| drug that binds noncompetitively and reverses the effectiveness of the transmitter |
|
|
Term
| Where are cannabinoid receptors typically located, on what aspect of neurons? |
|
Definition
| These are typically located on the presynaptic area, (or on axon terminals). |
|
|
Term
| What happened when Di Lorenzo and colleagues stimulated the rat taste-sensitive region of the medulla in a pattern similar to that recorded when they tasted quinine while they drank water? |
|
Definition
| These rats acted like the water tasted bad and began to avoid drinking it. |
|
|
Term
| Both rats and people that administer heroin regularly will likely experience _________ symptoms when heroin is taken away |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The ________ taste is likely helpful in maintaining a healthy fluid balance. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What capacity does the olfactory system have in terms of its neurons that is not common in the rest of the CNS? |
|
Definition
| The olfactory neurons are regularly replaced/replenished over time with new neurons throughout our lifetime. |
|
|
Term
| The grater the diameter of the axon the ________the ions flow. (Because of _______resistance) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Propagation of the action potential |
|
Definition
| describes the transmission of an action potential down an axon. Action potential gives birth to an new action potential at each node of ranvier along the axon. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| an insulating material composed of fats and proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| those covered with a myelin sheath. Meylinated axons are found only in vertebrates, and are covered with fats and proteins. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Interruptions in the Myelin sheath where a short section of the axon is located. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
The jumping of action potential from node to node.
In addition to providing rapid conduction of impulses, salatory conduction conserves energy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Is one of several demyelinating diseases in which the immune system attacks meylin sheath. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| People with multiple sclerosis suffer a variety of impairments, ranging from visual impairments to poor muscle control. |
|
|
Term
| In a mylinated axon, how would the action potential be affected if the nodes were much closer together? How might it be affected if the nodes were much farther apart? |
|
Definition
| If the nodes were closer, the action potential would travel more slowly. If they were much farther apart, the current might not be able to diffuse from one node to the next and still remain above the threshold, so the action potential might stop. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Neurons without axons that exchange information only with their closest neighbors. |
|
|
Term
| What type of potential due local neurons create? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| membrane potential that varies in magnitude without following the all-or-none law. |
|
|
Term
| How can astrocytes be considered local neurons? |
|
Definition
| Although they are glia cells, the have no action potentials, but they rapidly exchange chemicals back and forth with neighboring cells |
|
|
Term
| What do we mean when we say that the brain anatomy is plastic? |
|
Definition
| It is constantly changing, within limits. |
|
|
Term
| Which develops first, a neuron's axon or its dendrites? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In which brain areas do new neurons form in adults? |
|
Definition
| Olfactory receptors, neurons in the hippocampus, and neurons in the song-producing areas of some bird species |
|
|
Term
| What evidence indicated that new neurons seldom or never form in the adult cerebral cortext? |
|
Definition
| The (14)C concentration in the DNA of cerebral cortex neurons corresponds to the level during the year the person was born, indicating that all or nearly all of those neurons are as old as the person. |
|
|
Term
| What was Sperry's evidence that axons grow to a specific target instead of attaching at random? |
|
Definition
| Sperry found that if he cut a newt's eye and inverted it, axons grew back to their original targets, even though they were inappropriate to their new position on the eye. |
|
|
Term
| If all cells in an amphibians's tectum produced the same amount of TOP(dv), what would be the effect on the attachment of axons? |
|
Definition
| Axons would attach haphazardly instead of arranging themselves according to their dorsoventral position on the retina. |
|
|
Term
| If axons from the retina were prevented from showing spontaneous activity during early development, what would be the probable effect on development of the lateral geniculate? |
|
Definition
| The axons would attach based on chemical gradient but could not fine-tune their adjustment based on experience. Therefore, the connections would be less precise. |
|
|
Term
| What process assures that the spinal cord has the right number of axons to innervate all the muscle cells? |
|
Definition
| The nervous system builds far more neurons than it needs and discards through apoptosis those that do not make lasting synapses |
|
|
Term
| What class of chemicals prevents apoptosis? |
|
Definition
| Neurotrophins, such as nerve growth factor |
|
|
Term
| At what age does a person have the greatest number of neurons: Before birth, during childhood, during adolescence, or during adulthood. |
|
Definition
| The neuron number is greatest before birth. |
|
|
Term
| Anesthetic drugs increase inhibition of neurons, blocking most action potentials. Why would we predict that exposure to anesthetics might be dangerous to the brain of a fetus? |
|
Definition
| Prolonged exposure to anesthetics might produce effects similar to fetal alcohol syndrome. Fetal alcohol syndrome occurs because alcohol increases inhibition and therefore increases apoptosis of developing neurons |
|
|
Term
| In the ferret study, how did the experimenters determine that visual input to the auditory portions of the brain actually produced a visual sensation? |
|
Definition
| They trained the ferrets to respond to stimuli on the normal side, turning one direction in response to sounds and the other direction to lights. Then they presented light to the rewired side and saw that the ferret again turned in the direction it had associated with lights. |
|
|
Term
| An enriched environment promotes growth of axons and dendrites. What is known to be one important reason for this effect? |
|
Definition
| Animals in an enriched environment are more active, and their exercise enhances growth of axons and dendrites. |
|
|
Term
| Name two kinds of evidence indicating that touch information from the fingers invades the occipital cortex of people blind since birth? |
|
Definition
| First, brain scans indicate increased activity in the occipital cortex while blind people perform task such as feeling two objects and saying whether they are the same of different. Second, temporary inactivation of the occipital cortext blocks blind peoples ability to perform that task, without affecting the ability of sighted people |
|
|
Term
| Which brain area shows expanded representation of the left hand in people who began practicing stringed instruments in childhood and continued for many years? |
|
Definition
| Postcentral gyrus of the right hemisphere |
|
|
Term
| What change in the brain is responsible for musician's cramp? |
|
Definition
| Extensive practice of violin, piano, or other instruments causes expanded representation of the fingers in the somatosensory cortex. In some cases, the representation of each finger invades the area representing other fingers. If the representation of two fingers overlaps to much, the person cannot feel them separately, and the result is a musician's cramp. |
|
|
Term
Of the following, which use a labeled-line code and which use an across-fiber pattern code?
a) a fire alarm
b) a light switch
c) typing a capital letter |
|
Definition
| Typing a capital letter is an example of an across-fiber pattern code. (The result depends on a combination of the letter key and the shift key.) A fire alarm and a light switch are labeled lines that convey only one message. |
|
|
Term
| Suppose you find a new, unusual-tasting food. How could you determine whether we have a special receptor for that food or whether we taste it with a combination of the other known taste receptors? |
|
Definition
| You could test for cross-adaptation. If the new taste cross-adapts with others, then it uses the same receptors. If it does not cross-adapt, it may have a receptor of its own. Another possibility would be to find some procedure that blocks this taste without blocking other tastes. |
|
|
Term
| Although the tongue has receptors for bitter tastes, researchers have found neurons in the brain itself that respond more strongly to bitter than to other tastes. Explain, then, how it is possible for the brain to detect bitter tastes? |
|
Definition
| Two possibilities: First, bitter tastes produce a distinctive temporal pattern of responses in cells sensitive to taste. Second, even if no one cell responds strongly to bitter tastes, the pattern of responses across many cells may be distinctive. Analogously, in vision, no cone responds primarily to purple, but we nevertheless recognize purple by its pattern of activity across a population of cones |
|
|
Term
| If someone injected into your tongue a chemical that blocks the release of second messengers, how would it affect your taste experience? |
|
Definition
| The chemical would block your experiences of sweet, bitter, and unami but should not prevent you from tasting salty and sour. |
|
|
Term
| How do hormones influence taste sensitivity? |
|
Definition
| Genes and hormones influence the number of taste buds near the tip of the tongue. |
|
|
Term
| How do olfactory receptors resemble metabotropic neurotransmitter receptors? |
|
Definition
| Like metabotropic neurotransmitters receptors, an olfactory receptor acts through a G-protein that triggers further events within the cell. |
|
|
Term
| What is the mean life span of an olfactory receptor? |
|
Definition
| Most olfactory receptors survive a little more than a month before dying and being replaced |
|
|
Term
| What good does it do for an olfactory axon to have copies of the cell's olfactory receptor protein? |
|
Definition
| the receptor molecule acts as a kind of identification to help the axon find its correct target cell in the brain. |
|
|
Term
| What is one major difference between olfactory receptors and those of the vomeronasal organ? |
|
Definition
| Olfactory receptors adapt quickly to a continuous odor, whereas receptors of the vomeronasal organ continue to respond. Also, vomeronasal sensations are apparently capable of influencing behavior even without being consciously perceived. |
|
|
Term
| If someone reports seeing a particular letter in color, in what way is it different from a real color? |
|
Definition
| Someone who perceives a letter as yellow ( when it is actually in black ink) can nevertheless see it on a yellow page. |
|
|
Term
| What evidence led Sherrington to conclude that transmission at a synapse is different from transmission along an axon? |
|
Definition
| Sherrington found that the velocity of conduction through a reflex arc was significantly slower than the velocity of an action potential along an axon. Therefore, some delay must occur at the junction between one neuron and the next. |
|
|
Term
| What us the difference between temporal summation and spatial summation? |
|
Definition
| Temporal summation is the combined effect of quickly repeated stimulation at a single synapse. Spatial summation is the combined effect of several nearly simultaneous stimulation at several synapses onto one neuron. |
|
|
Term
| What was Sherrington's evidence for inhibition in the nervous system? |
|
Definition
| Sherrington found that a reflex that stimulates a flavor muscle sends a simultaneous message that inhibits nerves to the extensor muscles of the same limb. |
|
|
Term
| What ion gates in the membrane open during EPSP? What gates open during an IPSP? |
|
Definition
| During EPSP, voltage gated sodium channels open. During an IPSP, potassium or voltage gated chloride channels open |
|
|
Term
| Can an inhibitory message propagate along an axon? |
|
Definition
| No. Only action potentials propagate along an axon. Both EPSP's and IPSP's decay rapidly over time and distance. Their function is to determine whether the axon will send an action potential. |
|
|
Term
| What was Loewi's evidence that neurotransmission depends on the release of chemicals? |
|
Definition
| When Loewi stimulated a nerve that increased or decreased a frog's heart rate, he could withdraw some fluid from the area around the heart, transfer it to another frog's heart, and thereby increase or decrease its rate also. |
|
|
Term
| What does a highly active brain area do, in many cases, to increase its blood supply? |
|
Definition
| In a highly active brain area, many stimulated neurons release nitric oxide, which dilates the blood vessels in the area and thereby increases blood flow to the area. |
|
|
Term
| Name the three catecholamine neurotransmitters. |
|
Definition
| Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine |
|
|
Term
| When the action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, which ion must enter the presynaptic terminal to evoke release of the neuro-transmitter? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How do ionotropic and metabotropic synapses differ in speed and duration of effects? |
|
Definition
| Ionotropic synapses act more quickly and more briefly |
|
|
Term
| What are second messengers, and which type of synapse relies on them? |
|
Definition
| At metabotropic synapses, the neurotransmitter attaches to its receptor and thereby releases a chemical(the secondary messenger) within the postsynaptic cell, which alters metabolism or gene expression of the postsynaptic cell. |
|
|
Term
| Which part of the pituitary; anterior or posterior; is neural tissue, similar to the hypothalamus? Which part is glandular tissue and produces hormones that control the secretions by endocrine organs? |
|
Definition
| The posterior pituitary is neural tissue, like the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary is glandular tissue and produces hormones that control several other endocrine organs. |
|
|
Term
| In what way is a neuropeptide intermediate between other neurotransmitters and hormones? |
|
Definition
| Most neurotransmitters are released in small amounts close to their receptors. Neuropeptides are released into a brain area in larger amounts or not at all. When released, they diffuse more widely. Hormones are released into the blood for diffuse delivery throughout the body. |
|
|
Term
| What happens to acetylcholine molecules after they stimulate a post synaptic receptor? |
|
Definition
| The enzyme acetylcholinesterase breaks acetylcholine molecules into two smaller molecules, acetate and choline, which are then reabsorbed by the presynaptic terminal |
|
|
Term
| What happens to serotonin and catecholamine molecules after they stimulate a post synaptic receptors? |
|
Definition
| Most serotonin an catecholamine molecules are reabsorbed by the presynaptic terminal. Some of their molecules are broken down into inactive chemicals, which then float away. |
|
|
Term
| Is a drug with high affinity and low efficacy an agonist or antagonist? |
|
Definition
| Such a drug is an antagonist because, by occupying the receptor, it blocks out the neurotransmitter. |
|
|
Term
| What do drug use, sex, gambling, and video game playing have in common? |
|
Definition
| They increase the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. |
|
|
Term
| How does amphetamine influence dopamine synapses? |
|
Definition
| Amphetamine causes the dopamine transporter to release dopamine instead of reabsorbing it. |
|
|
Term
| How does cocaine influence dopamine synapses? |
|
Definition
| Cocaine interferes with re-uptake of released dopamine. |
|
|
Term
| Why is methylphenidate generally less disruptive to behavior than cocaine is despite the drugs' similar mechanisms? |
|
Definition
| The effects of a methylphenidate pill develop and decline in the brain much more slowly than do those of cocain. |
|
|
Term
| How does nicotine affect dopamine synapses? |
|
Definition
| Nicotine excites acetylcholine receptors on neurons that release dopamine and thereby increases dopamine release. |
|
|
Term
| How do opiates influence dopamine synapses? |
|
Definition
| Opiates stimulate endorphin synapses, which inhibit neurons that inhibit release of dopamine. By inhibiting an inhibitor, opiates increase the release of dopamine. |
|
|
Term
| What are the effects of cannabinoids on neurons? |
|
Definition
| Cannabinoids released by the postsynapti ceuron attach to receptors on presynaptic neurons, where they inhibit further release of glutamate as well as GABA. |
|
|
Term
| If incoming serotonin axons were destroyed, LSD would still have its full effects. However, if incoming dopamine axons were destroyed, amphetamine and cocaine would lose their effects. Explain the difference. |
|
Definition
| Amphetamine and cocaine act by releasing the net release of dopamine and other transmitters. If those neurons were damaged, amphetamine and cocaine would be ineffective. In contrast, LSD directly stimulates the receptor on the postsynaptic membrane. |
|
|
Term
| Which type of alcoholism has a stronger genetic basis? Which type has earlier onset? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name at least two ways a gene could influence alcoholism. |
|
Definition
| Genes can influence alcoholism by producing less sensitive dopamine receptors, faster breakdown of dopamine by the enzyme COMT, greater risk-taking behavior, and altered responses to stress. Of course, other possibilities not mentioned in this section also exist. |
|
|
Term
| What are two ways sons of alcoholics differ, on average, from sons of non-alcoholics? |
|
Definition
| Sons of alcoholics show less intoxication, including less body sway, after drinking moderate amount of alcohol. They also show greater relief from stress after drinking alcohol. |
|
|
Term
| Someone who has quit an addictive substance for the first time is strongly counseled not to try it again. Why? |
|
Definition
| Taking an addictive drug during the withdrawal period is strongly reinforcing and likely to lead to prolonged use. |
|
|
Term
| When addiction develops, how does the nucleus accumbens change its response to the addictive activity and to other reinforcements? |
|
Definition
| The nucleus accumbens becomes selectively sensitized, increasing its response to the addictive activity and decreasing its response to other reinforcing activities. |
|
|
Term
| Who would be likely to drink more alcohol; someone who metabolizes acetaldehyde to acetic acid rapidly or one who metabolizes it slowly? |
|
Definition
| People who metabolize it rapidly would be more likely to drink alcohol because they suffer fewer unpleasant effects. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Antabuse blocks the enzyme that converts acetaldehyde to acetic acid and therefore makes people sick if they drink alcohol. Potentially, it could teach people an aversion to alcohol, but more often it works as a way for the person to make a daily re-commitment abstain from drinking. |
|
|
Term
| Methadone users who try taking heroin experience little effect from it. Why? |
|
Definition
| Because methadone is already occupying the endorphin receptors, heroin cannot add much stimulation to them. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| One way that axons are attracted to an intermediate location where they become insensitive to that chemical and start following a different attractant |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In the development of the nervous system, we start with more neurons and synapses than we keep. Synapses form haphazardly, and then a selection process keeps some and rejects others. |
|
|
Term
| What did Levi-Montcalcini discover? |
|
Definition
| Nevertheless, she developed a love for research and eventually discovered that the muscles do not determine how many axons form; they determine how many survive. |
|
|
Term
| Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) |
|
Definition
| When one of its neurons forms a synapse onto a muscle, that muscle delivers a protein called (NGF) that promotes the survival and growth of the axon. An axon that does not receive NGF degenerates, and its cell body dies. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| If a axon does not make contact with an appropriate postsynaptic cell by a certain age, the neuron kills itself through a process called apoptosis, a programmed mechanism of cell death. NGF cancels the program for apoptosis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Nerve growth factor, a chemical that promotes the survival and activity of neurons. |
|
|
Term
| brain-derived neurotropic factor(BDNF) |
|
Definition
| In addition to NGF, the nervous system responds to BDNF and several other neurotrophins. BDNF is the most abundant neurotrophin in the adult cerebral cortex. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Children of mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy are born with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, a condition marked by hyperactivity, impulsiveness, difficulty maintaining attention, varying degrees of mental retardation, motor problems, heart defects, and facial abnormalities. |
|
|
Term
| Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (ADULTS) |
|
Definition
| They have increased risk of alcoholism, drug dependence, depression, and psychiatric disorders. |
|
|
Term
| What happens to children of mothers that used cocaine during pregnancy? |
|
Definition
| Showed a decrease in language skills compared to other children, a slight decrease in IQ scores, and impaired hearing. |
|
|
Term
| What happened to children of mothers who smoked during pregnancy? |
|
Definition
| they are at increased risk of attention deficit disorder, aggressive behavior, and impaired memory and intelligence. |
|
|
Term
| What does a higher enriching environment develop? |
|
Definition
| It developed a thicker cortex, more dendritic branching, and improved learning. |
|
|
Term
| What happens to the cerebral cortex and Neurons in general beginning at age 30? |
|
Definition
| The cerebral cortex declines with advancing age, beginning at age 30 and accelerating in later years. Neurons also become less active, partly because of decreased blood flow. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The condition called musicians cramp in which the fingers become clumsy, fatigue easily, and make involuntary movements that interfere with the task. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| each receptor would respond to limited range of stimuli |
|
|
Term
| Across-Fiber Patterns Principle |
|
Definition
| each receptor responds to a wider range of stimuli |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The receptors on the tongue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Location of mammalian taste receptors on the surface of the tongue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When the body adapts to a strong stimuli making a similar stimuli weaker. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reduced response to one taste after exposure to another |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| have the highest sensitivity to all taste and mouth sensations. |
|
|
Term
| What do the variations in taste sensitivity relate to? |
|
Definition
| the number of fungigorm papillae |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the sense of smell, is the response to chemicals that contact the membranes inside the nose. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The neurons responsible for smell. They line the olfactory epithelium in the rear of the nasal air passages. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The neurons responsible for smell. They line the olfactory epithelium in the rear of the nasal air passages. |
|
|
Term
| Which gender detect odor more readily? Which gender has a stronger brain response to odor? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Are chemicals released by an animal that affect the behavior of other members of the same species, especially sexually |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Is a set of receptors located near, but separate from, the olfactory receptors. |
|
|
Term
| Do your olfactory receptors respond to continued odors? |
|
Definition
| No. Your olfactory receptors respond to a new odor but not to a continued one. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Is the experience of one sense in response to stimulation of a different sense. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Neurons communicate by transmitting chemicals at specialized junctions called synapses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| automatic muscular responses to stimuli |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a sensory neuron excites a second neuron, which in turn excites a motor neuron which in turn excites a muscle. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The circuit from sensory neuron to muscle response |
|
|
Term
| Sherringtons Observations on Reflexes and Special processes at the junction between neurons |
|
Definition
A)Reflexes are slower than conduction along and axon
B)Several weak stimuli presented at slightly different times or slightly different locations produce a stronger reflex than a single stimulus dose.
c)When one set of muscles become excited, a different set becomes relaxed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Repeated stimuli within a brief time have a cumulative effect. In a single location. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Unlike action potentials, which are always depolarization's, graded potentials may either be depolarization's(excitatory) or hyperpolarizations(inhibitory) |
|
|
Term
| Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential |
|
Definition
| A graded depolarization. An EPSP occurs when sodium ions enter the cell. If an EPSP does not cause the cell to reach its threshold, depolarization decays quickly. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Summation over space.
Synaptic input from separate locations combine their effect on a neuron.
Spacial Summation is critical to brain function |
|
|
Term
| What does spacial summation assure? |
|
Definition
| That a sensory stimulus will stimulate the cortical cells enough to activate them |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an intermediate neuron in the spinal chord |
|
|
Term
| Inhibitory postsynaptic potential |
|
Definition
| The temporary hyperpolarization of a membrane after an action potential or graded potential . Selectively opens voltage gates to allow potassium to leave and or chloride to enter. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a periodic production of action potentials even without synaptic input |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a periodic production of action potentials even without synaptic input |
|
|
Term
| What is step one in the sequence of chemical events at the synapse? |
|
Definition
| 1)The neuron synthesizes chemicals that serve as neurotransmitters. It synthesizes the smaller neurotransmitters in the axon terminals and neuropeptides in the cell body |
|
|
Term
| What is step two in the sequence of chemical events at the synapse? |
|
Definition
| 2)The neuron transports the neuropeptides that were formed in the cell body to the axon terminals or to the dendrites. (Neuropeptides are released from multiple sites in the cell) |
|
|
Term
| What is step three in the sequence of chemical events at the synapse? |
|
Definition
| Action potential travels down the axon. At the presynaptic terminal, an action potential enables calcium to enter the cell through voltage gated channels. Calcium releases neurotransmitters from the terminals and into the synaptic cleft |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. |
|
|
Term
| What is step four in the sequence of chemical events at the synapse? |
|
Definition
| The released molecules diffuse across the cleft, attach to receptors, and alter activity of the postsynaptic neuron. |
|
|
Term
| What is step five in the sequence of chemical events at the synapse? |
|
Definition
| The neurotransmitter molecules separate from their receptors. Depending on the neurotransmitter, it may be converted into inactive chemicals. |
|
|
Term
| What is step six in the sequence of chemical events at the synapse? |
|
Definition
| The neurotransmitter molecules may be taken back into the presynaptic neuron for recycling or may diffuse away. In some cases, empty vesicles are returned to the cell body. |
|
|
Term
| What is step seven in the sequence of chemical events at the synapse? |
|
Definition
| Some postsynaptic cells send reverse messages to control the further release of neurotransmitter by presynaptic cells. |
|
|
Term
| Where are the most abundant neurotransmitters synthesized? |
|
Definition
| In the preynaptic terminal |
|
|
Term
| Where are neuropeptides synthesized? |
|
Definition
| In the cell body and then transported down the axon or into the dendrites |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A tiny spherical packets where the presynaptic terminal stores high concentrations of neurotransmitters molecules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Release of neurotransmitter in bursts from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When the neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on a membrane, it opens the voltage gated channel for some type of ion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a gate operated by a chemical that binds to another chemical |
|
|
Term
| What neurotransmitters are most of the brains excitatory ionotropic synapses using? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What neurotransmitter do most inhibitory synapses use? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| opens chloride gates, enabling chloride ions, with their negative charge, to cross the membrane into the cell more rapidly than usual |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a sequence of metabolic reactions that are slower and longer lasting ionotropic effects |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a energy storing molecule that increases the concentration of a second messenger |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Just as the first messenger(the neurotransmitter), it carries information to the postsynaptic cell, to communicate to areas within the cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a chemical that is secreted, in most cases by a gland but also by other kinds of cells, and conveyed by the blood to other organs, whose activity it influences. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| flow through the blood to the anterior pituitary. There they stimulate or inhibit release of hormones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The presynaptic neuron takes up most of the released neurotransmitters molecules intact and reuses them |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| receptors that detect amount of transmitter released and inhibit further synthesis and release after it reaches a certain level |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A drug that blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A drug that mimics or increases the effects |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Is the tendency of a drug to activate a receptor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| if a drug is capable of binding to a receptor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| increase excitement, alertness, and activity, while elevating mood and decreasing fatigue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| It blocks the reuptake of dopamine, norephinephrine, and serotonin, thus prolonging their effects |
|
|
