Whenever I get an A on a test, my parents tell everyone that I got the best grade because I am intelligent. Which mediating process is this an example of?

A. Physiological

B. Cognitive

C. Behavioral

D. Mental 

Which scenario explains Jacob’s appropriate manding using a mediating process?

A.Jacob mands appropriately because his patience has increased recently

B.Jacob mands appropriately because in the past manding appropriately has resulted in preferred items

C.Jacob mands appropriately because his mother is attending to him at the moment

Kyle meets with a technician once a week for a session of electromagnetic therapy to help balance out his discordant brain frequencies. Which type of explanation is this an example of?

A.Parsimonious

B.Pseudoscientific

C.Magical

D.Anthropomorphic

E.Teleological

F.Nominal

The baby cries in order to be picked up. Which type of explanation is this an example of?

A.Parsimonious

B.Pseudoscientific

C.Magical

D.Anthropomorphic

E.Teleological

F.Nominal

E.Teleological

ex. Will see the phrase “in order to,” “intent,” “purpose”

Luna wears radish because she believes it will enhance her wisdom. Which type of explanation is this an example of? A.Parsimonious

B.Pseudoscientific

C.Magical

D.Anthropomorphic

E.Teleological

F.Nominal

F.Nominal

 Attributing cause to something that exists in name only. He's Cool 

Which of the following is an example of inductive theory? A.Noel says that all cakes are made with flour; therefore, the cake in front of him must have been made with those ingredients.

B.Sandi says that she has eaten flourless cake on several occasions, so it is possible that the cake in front of her might not contain any flour.

B.Sandi says that she has eaten flourless cake on several occasions, so it is possible that the cake in front of her might not contain any flour

Ends with Data

Which of the following is an example of deductive theory? A.Ms. Jenkins states that all children with autism struggle with eye contact. Therefore, her student, Riley, can be expected to struggle with eye contact and is unlikely to improve.

B.Ms. Wyatt states that she’s observed Riley make very small amounts of eye contact when around other children. Therefore, Riley might learn to do so more often with the right teaching strategies.

A.Ms. Jenkins states that all children with autism struggle with eye contact. Therefore, her student, Riley, can be expected to struggle with eye contact and is unlikely to improve. 

Gave a Specific Answer

Yulia loves to shop. She has historically shopped for deals at Shoe Barn but went into Shoe Carousel for the first time and found some good deals there as well. Which type of generalization is this an example of?

A.Stimulus generalization

B.Response generalization

A. Stimulus Generalization

Two stimulus shoe carousel and shoe barn

B.Response generalization

ex. infinite jokes

Hagrid only brings his umbrella with him when he sees dark clouds outside and hears thunder before leaving. Even when friends tell him they think it may rain, or the weatherman indicates high change of precipitation, Hagrid only grabs his umbrella under conditions of dark clouds and thunder. He must not trust meteorologists. Which type of generalization gradient is this an example of?

A.Flat B.Steep

Christine loves hot coffee and never drinks iced coffee. While she has encountered relief from the cold in Winter, she will now drink hot coffee in the middle of Summer. Which type of generalization gradient is this an example of? A.Flat

B.Steep

When Paul’s favorite skillet breaks, he will use a different one to make his favorite recipe. Which element of stimulus control is this an example of?

A.Discrimination B.Generalization

Which of the following is an example of systematic replication?

A.The coaches visual feedback system was successful at improving the runners’ posture. To further assess its efficacy the coach uses his previous methods for a couple of weeks and then switches back to the visual feedback system.

B.Marko planned to use a combination of task clarification and graphic display of feedback to improve employee performance. The intervention package was shown to be successful. He then plans to vary between the procedures to evaluate the impact this has on performance. 

Which of the following is an example of direct replication? A.The prompting procedure implemented by the consultant was successful at improving the stroke of the swimmer during practices. He decides to ensure that it is effective by suspending the procedures use for several practices and then re-introducing it.

B.Adding visual signs around the office as an antecedent-based intervention to improve employee accuracy compared to baseline. The consultant decides to evaluate variations in the number of signs displayed in the office and the impact on accuracy

Which of these scenarios does NOT include a mediational process to explain behavior?

A. Alexander sees a wasp flying nearby, inducing a panicked state. This causes him to run the other way.

B. When Catalina’s dog begins to whine, she bends down and pets her. Catalina’s dog usually stops whining.

C. Sheryl often forgets where she leaves her keys because of her terrible memory.

D. Rebecca’s frustration got the best of her, resulting in her yelling at her partner for leaving the food unrefrigerated. 

B. Steep stimulus generalization gradient

ex. • Target behavior mostly occurs in presence of SD and not across similar stimuli • AKA stimulus discrimination • Generality not observed across stimuli

D. Steep response generalization gradient

• Only one response topography occurs in the presence of the SD • AKA response differentiation • Generality not observed across responses

BCBA Casey is working with an in-home client. After collecting baseline data on the client’s problem behavior, she introduces a token economy. After seeing a decrease in problem behavior rates, Casey removes the token economy, collects baseline data again, and reintroduces the intervention. This scenario is an example of _____

A. Direct replication

B. Systematic replication across subjects

C. Systematic replication across variables

D. Systematic replication across settings

A. Direct replication

ex. Repetition of the same procedure with the same subject • Demonstrate internal validity • E.g., – Remove treatment, replace treatment

When a customer walks in, Velma greets them, saying, “Welcome to Joe’s!” She sometimes switches it up by saying, “We’re glad you made it to Joe’s” or “Joe’s proudly welcomes you!” Velma changing up her greeting exemplifies which type of generalization gradient?

A. Flat stimulus generalization gradient

B. Steep stimulus generalization gradient

C. Flat response generalization gradient

D. Steep response generalization gradient

Emily reads about an error correction procedure conducted in study. The study’s participants remind her of one of her students, so she implements the procedure with the student and obtains the same results. This scenario is an example of _____

A. Direct replication

B. Systematic replication across subjects

C. Systematic replication across variables

D. Systematic replication across settings

The dog refused to play with his owner because the dog was lazy. Which type of explanation does this scenario exemplify?

A. Parsimonious

B. Pseudoscientific

C. Magical

D. Anthropomorphic

E. Teleological

F. Nominal

Brendan usually wears funny hats to work because, in the past, he always makes the receptionist laugh. Which type of explanation does this scenario exemplify?

A. Parsimonious

B. Pseudoscientific

C. Magical

D. Anthropomorphic

E. Teleological

F. Nominal

Which of these scenarios includes a mediational process to explain behavior?

A. After Christine reads the email from her boss, she processes the information and starts working on the Excel file he mentioned.

B. Ann starts reeling in her catch after feeling a tug on her fishing rod.

C. When Tonya sees her brother walk by, she rolls a piece of paper and throws it at him, causing him to yell at her jokingly.

D. Frankie hears the doorbell ring, so he walks to the door and opens it to find his food delivery has been dropped off. 

A. Flat stimulus generalization gradient

ex.• Target behavior occurs across similar stimuli • AKA stimulus generalization • Observing generality – The extent to which effective therapeutic variables, methods, or processes are observed across settings, people, species, or responses

When the alarm signals it’s time for his lunch break, Charlie stands up and makes himself a ham and cheese sandwich. Charlie always makes the same sandwich daily and never seems tired of it. Charlie making the same sandwich for lunch everyday exemplifies which type of generalization gradient?

A. Flat stimulus generalization gradient

B. Steep stimulus generalization gradient

C. Flat response generalization gradient

D. Steep response generalization gradient

Cornelius’s intent was to surprise Natasha for her birthday, but he couldn’t keep her gift hidden. Which type of explanation does this scenario exemplify?

A. Parsimonious

B. Pseudoscientific

C. Magical

D. Anthropomorphic

E. Teleological

F. Nominal

E. Teleological

ex intent

Will see the phrase “in order to,” “intent,” “purpose” 

Bill is a BCBA working with a teenage learner. Recently, Bill has seen progress toward his learner’s acquisition goals by using the tablet as a reinforcer for a few minutes. However, the learner’s mother would like to fade out using the tablet for long durations. Instead of 5 minutes of tablet time contingent on engaging in a series of target behaviors, Bill decreased the time to 4 minutes and several sessions later to 3 minutes. This scenario is an example of _____

A. Direct replication

B. Systematic replication across subjects

C. Systematic replication across variables

D. Systematic replication across settings

When Erick opened the umbrella indoors, Jerri frantically urged him to close it, believing it to be terrible luck to open an umbrella inside. Which type of explanation does this scenario exemplify?

A. Parsimonious

B. Pseudoscientific

C. Magical

D. Anthropomorphic

E. Teleological

F. Nominal

Joan uses a DRA procedure with her client, Tina. This results in a decrease in problem behavior rates at home. Joan trains Tina’s teacher to implement the procedure and the school and the SLP to use it during their sessions. All the IDT members see similar levels of success. This scenario is an example of _____

A. Direct replication

B. Systematic replication across subjects

C. Systematic replication across variables

D. Systematic replication across settings

Clair appropriately mands for things she needs and wants with her BCBA, Krystin. However, when Krystin is not at home, Clair does not appropriately mand with her parents. Similarly, Clair does not engage in this behavior at school. Clair only manding with her BCBA exemplifies which type of generalization gradient?

A. Flat stimulus generalization gradient

B. Steep stimulus generalization gradient

C. Flat response generalization gradient

D. Steep response generalization gradient

Which of the following is an example of a structural definition?

A. Elopement means the client temporarily left the area after receiving a demand, delaying the task.

B. “Hyperactivity” is any time the client feels abnormal or extremely active.

C. Inappropriate gestures involve any response that results in the interruption of a nearby conversation not involving the individual.

D. The client’s “self-stimulatory behavior” includes jumping an inch or more off the ground in bursts of 2-4 times every 10 seconds. 

E. Teleological

in order to

When working with a new hire, Steve sends daily emails with detailed positive feedback if the team member reaches their goal. As the staff gains experience, Steve begins to fade out the number of emails to once every other day to once a week and, eventually, once every other week. Thus far, he has seen the staff member’s performance maintained as he faded out his positive feedback emails. This scenario is an example of _____

A. Direct replication

B. Systematic replication across subjects

C. Systematic replication across variables

D. Systematic replication across settings

Which of the following is an example of deductive reasoning?

A. Betty noticed that the employees were parking near the clinic instead of farther away because the spots were not marked as being for “visitors only.”

B. Michelle observed that everyone working in the east wing of the office was sweating and wearing loose clothes. After talking to a few workers, she concluded that something must be wrong with the air conditioning in that part of the building.

C. After working with Jonah for a few weeks, BCBA Jenelle believed that he would master new targets very quickly, given his current trend.

D. Wilbert thought that all exercise was a waste of time and that anyone could stay healthy as long as they ate the right foods. 

BCBA Dennis uses a scorecard with his RBT supervisee and wants to demonstrate its efficacy. After removing the scorecard, Dennis gathers data on his supervisee’s performance and reintroduces it. He continues this over several sessions, indicating a functional relation between using the scorecard and his supervisee’s improved performance. This scenario is an example of _____

A. Direct replication

B. Systematic replication across subjects

C. Systematic replication across variables

D. Systematic replication across settings

❑ Ferster and Skinner’s text, Schedules of Reinforcement, is seen as the “zenith” of positivism because:

a. It included almost exclusively interpretations of data

b. It did not include any data, only narratives about the conducted experiments

c. It included almost exclusively presentations of data

d. It valued subjective reports over objective data

❑ Why is it sometimes helpful to organize topographically different responses into instances of an overriding behavioral process?

q It allows us to use labels as causes for behavior

q It helps to communicate with others

q It allows us to attribute descriptions of behavior to the person

q It can be useful for distinguishing behavioral patterns

Definitions that are typically pulled from a dictionary and are less useful for scientists are:

a. Functional

b. Operational

c. Formal

❑“Opening a door: Any response that results in a closed door becoming ajar” ❑This is which type of definition?

a. Formal

b. Operational

c. Functional

❑“Happy: Feeling or showing pleasure or contentment” ❑This is which type of definition?

a. Formal

b. Operational

c. Functional

Which of the following is an example of a functional definition?

a. "Biting” is any instance of an open mouth closing with force onto the skin or clothing of another person

b. "Aggression” is any instance of drawing the leg back, then swinging it forward and forcefully connecting the foot with another individual’s body

c. "Aggression” is any kicking or hitting that results in verbal attention from an adult

d. "Nail-biting” is any instance of teeth closing onto the nail or nail bed 

❑ Which of the following is an example of a structural definition?

a. Hair-pulling is maintained by access to preferred items and activities

b. "Hair-pulling” is defined as grasping and tugging another person’s hair

c. Hair-pulling occurs most often when the learner is denied access to a preferred item or activity

d. "Hair-pulling” is pulling or tugging on another person’s hair, typically preceded by instructions to complete a task, and followed by the opportunity to delay completion of the task

B. False

Correct

❑Responses that have the same topography could fall within different functional response definitions.

a. True

b. False

a. True

Correct

❑ The term “higher-order construct” best describes:

a. Phenomena, such as processing speed, which cannot be directly observed, but are used to explain differences in responding

b. Observable responses, such as response latency, that are used to explain private events

c. Constructions, such as intelligence, that are removed from direct observation but created to augment empirical observations 

d. Covert responses, such as thoughts, that can only be observed by the individual engaging in the response

❑ The results of multiple studies by Nevin indicated that response strength can be seen as an intervening variable connecting:

a. Unobservable entities influencing behavior

b. Magnitude, delay, and reinforcement rate to response rate; latency to response; and resistance to extinction

c. Private events only accessible to the behaver

❑ The results of multiple studies by Nevin indicated that response strength can be seen as an intervening variable connecting:

a. Unobservable entities influencing behavior

b. Magnitude, delay, and reinforcement rate to response rate; latency to response; and resistance to extinction

c. Private events only accessible to the behaver

❑Match the definition with the corresponding term: ❑Loosely constructed concept that serves an integrative function = ___1.____ ❑Variable that mediates the relationship between two other concepts = ___2.____

A. Intervening Variant

B. Hypothetical Construct

1. B. Hypothetical Constructs

2. Intervening Varient

❑ Herschel had been awake for 24 hours. He takes a sleep-inducing medication and only sleeps for two hours. He is slower to respond, his task engagement duration is shorter, and he completes fewer tasks. In this example, “being tired” is a(n):

a. Hypothetical construct

b. Intervening variable

b. Intervening variable

Correct

Karly recently lost her job. Since then, her friends state that she has “really turned into a pessimist” about finding a new job. In this example, pessimism is a(n):

a. Intervening variable

b. Hypothetical construct

B. Hypothetical Construct

Correct

❑It is possible that hypothetical constructs can also be intervening variables, but this is only true if empirically we can identify functional relations between them.

a. True

b. False

A. TRUE

Correct

Which of the following is a danger of including mediational events in our analyses?

a. They can be viewed has having heuristic value that stimulates new research

b. Mediational events tend to be reified and used as explanations of behavior

c. Mediational events often are used to organize types of behavior that are widely different from one another

d. There are no dangers to including mediational events

b. Mediational events tend to be reified and used as explanations of behavior

EX. Including mediational events in behavior analysis can be dangerous.  For example, “impulsivity” may be used as a mediational event when a learner chooses a smaller, immediate reinforcer over a larger, delayed reinforcer.  This becomes problematic if the term “impulsivity” is reified and then used to describe why the learner chose the small, immediate reinforcer.  If we say that the learner is “impulsive,” or chooses the small reinforcer “because he is impulsive,” we are limiting our analyses of the contingencies involved.

❑ Arthur often practiced the piano while stuck at home. After several months he played in front of his friends, and they commented on how well he played. He says he developed a “musical sense” while spending a lot of time alone. Which is considered a mediational event?

a. Frequent practice

b. Playing well in front of his friends

c. Musical sense

d. His coworkers’ praise

c. Musical sense

EX, By stating that Arthur developed a musical sense due to practicing on his own, the cause of his improved piano playing is immediately attributed to that musical sense.  Instead, it is more likely that his improved playing is due to increased practice.  In this example, the mediational event of musical sense is reified and then used as a means to describe why Arthur has improved his piano playing skills.

Shauna is asked to come to the dinner table. After being asked, she continues to play for two minutes before walking to the table. Her dad says, “It takes her a while to process simple requests.” Which is considered a mediational event? a. Being asked to come to the table

b. Processing the request

c. Walking to the table

d. Playing with toys

B. Processing the request

Correct

Petra is driving to her boyfriend’s house. She’s only been to his house once. When she comes to his road, she remembers that he lives near an ugly yellow house. She scans, sees the yellow house, and turns towards it. Which is considered a mediational event?

a. Scanning for the yellow house

b. Driving to her boyfriend’s house

c. Turning towards the yellow house

d. Remembering that he lives near an ugly yellow house

d. Remembering that he lives near an ugly yellow house

orrect

❑ Dona is given a math problem, but her underdeveloped working memory hinders her ability to complete the problem quickly. ❑ This is which type of mediating process? a. Mental

b. Behavioral

c. Physiological

d. Cognitive

When a question is posed to the class, Shuri shouts out odd phrases due to her unique sense of humor. ❑ This is which type of mediating process?

a. Mental

b. Behavioral

c. Physiological

d. Cognitive

A.Mental

Correct

❑ When offered breakfast, Blake refused. This was likely due to reduced drive caused by a late dinner the night before. ❑ This is which type of mediating process?

a. Mental

b. Behavioral

c. Physiological

d. Cognitive

b. Behavioral

Drive is a mediating concept proposed by methodological behaviorists.  It does not appeal to cognitive processes (perception, memory), physiological processes (hormones, neurology), or mental traits (intelligence, disposition).

❑ Robin states that when she hears her phone “ding” with a notification, she checks her phone. The “ding” activates her drive to check her phone. This is an example of which hypothetically constructed mediating process?

a. Mental

b. Behavioral

c. Physiological

d. Cognitive 

b. Behavioral

In behavioral processes, an internal event like “drive” is seen as necessary for the behavior to occur.  In other words, the “drive” causes the behavior to occur.  In this example, the “ding” is seen as the reason behavior occurs, rather than a history of behavior occurring under certain environmental conditions.  When physiological processes are used as mediators, we see concepts like neuroscience as the reason a behavior occurs.  Concepts like intelligence are evoked as mediators in mental processes, which arise in the “mind” of the individual.

a. Mental

Mental processes are mediators like intelligence and emotions.  Here, the behavior is said to occur because of frustration and anxiety; these emotions are used to explain why the response occurs.  Physiological processes are those related to neuroscience; such as biological events like physical sensations.  Cognitive processes are those like memory, which cause behavior through hypothetical constructs in the brain.  Behavioral processes are those that often exist within methodological behaviorism, where a response is said to occur because of some construct like drive or habit.

Which of the following includes a mediational process in the explanation of behavior?

a. Whenever Evan has a headache, he takes a pain reliever and his headache diminishes

b. Evan’s knowledge of medication is the reason he takes a pain reliever when he has a headache

c. The sight of the pain medication serves as a discriminative stimulus signaling the availability of reinforcement

d. Evan’s pill-taking behavior has strengthened over time due to the process of reinforcement

b. Evan’s knowledge of medication is the reason he takes a pain reliever when he has a headache.

 b. May be difficult, and often these terms are used to refer to the same thing.

ex.Correct

Which is the most parsimonious explanation?

a. Shuri has a hard time with current math tasks because it takes a long time for her to process

 b. Shuri has a hard time with current math tasks because she has not sufficiently mastered the prerequisite skills

❑ Which is the most parsimonious explanation?

a. Moira’s low IQ makes it difficult for her to answer basic personal information questions

b. When asked a personal information question in a wh- format, a full verbal prompt is necessary to evoke a correct response from Shuri

b. When asked a personal information question in a wh- format, a full verbal prompt is necessary to evoke a correct response from Shuri

ex.Parsimony relates to the goal of simplicity in explanation.  Typically, parsimonious explanations prefer clear functional relations over psychoanalytic or cognitive explanations.  In behavior analysis, the emphasis is on the quantitative description over hypothetical entities.  In this case, the more parsimonious explanation focuses on the observable event required to evoke responding.

Which of the following is an example of the most parsimonious explanation of Mae’s behavior of biting other children?

a. Mae bites other children because she has an oral fixation b. Mae bites other children because she knows it’s an effective way to get the teacher’s attention

c. Mae bites other children because she has a sensory processing disorder

d. When Mae bit other children in the past, the teachers immediately gave her attention

d. When Mae bit other children in the past, the teachers immediately gave her attention

ex.Parsimony leads us to simple explanations, rather than invoking hypothetical events or constructs.  Here, a parsimonious explanation of Mae’s behavior is simply a function of her past experience.  Biting is more likely to occur in certain conditions due to a history of reinforcement in those conditions.  Describing biting as occurring because of an oral fixation is not parsimonious, as it assumes a hypothetical mediator in its explanation.  Similarly, “knowing” that biting is an effective way to get attention also relies on a hypothetical construct in explaining behavior; the reason Mae bites is not in the environment, but in her “knowledge.”   A sensory processing disorder also relies on a mediator to explain behavior.  The “disorder” is necessary to explain biting.  In a parsimonious explanation, behavior is explained through its interaction with the environment, which does not require hypothetical mediators.

c. Based in pseudoscience

ex.Pseudoscience falls somewhere between scientific and unscientific, while attempting to keep some impression of science.  Attributing causes to astrological signs takes pieces from astronomy, which is a true science.  However, astrology is not based in science.  Magical thinking has no foundation in reality nor does it include any component of science. 

Having no realistic foundation or scientific evidence” describes which type of behavioral explanation?

a. Pseudoscientific explanation

b. Magical explanation

c. Anthropomorphic explanation

d. Teleological explanation

e. Nominal explanation

C. Nominal Explantion

ex.Correct

❑ Billy makes jokes during class so that he can be sent out to the hallway and avoid the classwork. This is an example of which type of explanation for behavior?

a. Teleological

b. Pseudoscientific

c. Magical

d. Nominal

❑ Blane’s mom explains that she misplaced her child’s bracelet, which stabilizes his magnetic field and calms him. She says that not wearing it is causing Blane’s aggressive behavior. This is an example of which type of explanation for behavior?

a. Magical

b. Pseudoscientific

c. Teleological

d. Nominal

b. Pseudoscientific

ex.Pseudoscientific explanations attempt to create the impression of science, though science is not involved.  Here, Blane’s behavior is explained through the absence of a specific item—the magnetic bracelet.  Though it involves a magnetic field, which is sometimes discussed in a scientific context, this effect is not actually supported by science.  Magical explanations have no basis in reality.  If, for example, Blane’s mom explained his aggression through the alignment of his aura, this would be a magical explanation.  Teleological explanations are those that put the effect before the cause; in other words, future events are described as controlling current behaviors.  Finally, naming something and then assuming that thing is now real is an example of a nominal explanation.  For example, if Blane’s mom stated that he is aggressive because he is unhappy, “unhappiness” becomes an entity contrived by the mother that is now used to describe Blane’s behavior.

A running group is stretching and preparing for the day’s run. They notice that Ruth isn’t there yet. Sam comments, “Ruth has ADHD, and people with ADHD can never manage to be anywhere on time. She’ll probably show up 10 minutes late without her running shoes.” Sue says, “Everyone runs late sometimes. I’m sure she will arrive soon.” Avery asks if anyone contacted Ruth to let her know the start time for the run had changed. “Maybe Ruth didn’t know the run was starting at 6 p.m.” Ally responds, “I spoke with Ruth yesterday and she was looking forward to today’s run.” Ally adds, “Something bad must have happened to Ruth or else she would be here.” 

Which of the runners’ explanations is an example of deductive reasoning?

a. Sue’s explanation that everyone runs late sometimes b. Sam’s explanation that all people with ADHD have problems with punctuality

c. Avery’s explanation that Ruth wasn’t informed of the time change

d. Ally’s explanation that something bad must have happened to Ruth 

b. Sam’s explanation that all people with ADHD have problems with punctuality

Four waiters are preparing for dinner service. Elliot wonders aloud if it will be a busy night. Sharon says, “It’s so unpredictable. You never know when you’ll do great and when you’ll make almost nothing.” Robin counters, “That’s not true. The last three Thursdays have been busy and everyone’s done well. Since it’s Thursday, I think it will be a great night.” Elliot says, “I don’t know, but I’ve got my hopes up that the stars will align, and we’ll have a good night.” Luis says, “Well, if we all do our best that’s all that we can control, so let’s get busy.”

Which waiter’s perspective is an example of inductive reasoning?

a. Elliot’s hope that the stars will align

b. Sharon’s statement about the unpredictability of whether it will be busy

c. Luis’ comment that doing one’s best is the best way to produce a good night

d. Robin’s use of observations from previous Thursdays to predict how this Thursday will go 

d. Robin’s use of observations from previous Thursdays to predict how this Thursday will go 

❑ Which statement is true about the relationship between generalization and discrimination?

a. The greater the generalization, the less the discrimination

b. The greater the discrimination, the less the generalization

c. Discrimination training leads to a steeper generalization gradient

d. All of these

d. All of the above.

Generalization occurs when responding is trained in one condition and then occurs without training in another condition.  Discrimination occurs when responding is trained in one condition and then does not occur under other conditions.  When an organism can discriminate between two stimuli, there is little to no generalization.  The greater the generalization, the less discrimination occurs.  Likewise, the greater the discrimination, the less generalization there is.  Training to discriminate leads to a steeper generalization gradient.

D. Flat Response Generalization Gradient

A steep response generalization gradient occurs if responding is rigid, where the same form of response occurs consistently.  Here, Ron is only able to communicate what he wants through vocalizing it.  In a flat response generalization gradient, the external stimulus does not change, but aspects of the response do change.  If Ron could request the banana vocally, with pictures, by pointing, and by signing, we would see a flat response generalization gradient.  In a steep stimulus generalization gradient, responding only occurs to one specific type or form of stimulus.  Here, if Ron only requested the banana when it was fully covered in chocolate (and did not request it when the banana was only half covered in chocolate), we would note a steep stimulus generalization gradient.   A flat stimulus generalization gradient would exist if Ron could request chocolate covered bananas regardless of how much chocolate was on the banana, the color of the banana skin, and so on.

❑ Ellen loves to collect wind chimes. While she has many, she’ll buy a new set any time she finds one. It doesn’t matter if it’s expensive, large, cheap, ugly, or difficult to transport home; if she finds wind chimes, Ellen is buying them and putting them in her yard. This is an example of a: a. Steep stimulus generalization gradient

b. Flat stimulus generalization gradient

c. Steep response generalization gradient

d. Flat response generalization gradient 

B. FLAT STIMULUS GENERALIZATION GRADIENT

Correct

❑ Ansley is particular about her food. If her soup is too hot, she’ll refuse to eat it. If it’s the slightest bit cool when she takes a sip, she’ll refuse to eat more. Only if it feels the same as the temperature of her mouth when she takes a sip will she continue to eat the soup. This is an example of a:

a. Steep stimulus generalization gradient

b. Flat stimulus generalization gradient

c. Steep response generalization gradient

d. Flat response generalization gradient  

A. Steep Stimulus Generalization Gradient

Stimulus generalization occurs when one response occurs in the presence of different antecedent stimuli.  Since the stimuli are soup of different temperatures, this is an example of stimulus generalization.  A steep stimulus generalization gradient indicates minimal stimulus generalization, where Ansley will only eat soup if it is a specific temperature.  In other words, changes in response rate are observed as the stimulus changes.  A flat stimulus generalization gradient would occur if Ansley eats soup, regardless of its temperature.  If this were response generalization, we would be looking at multiple responses to the same stimulus.  However, the response does not change (i.e., eating soup), only the stimulus does (i.e., soup temperature

The teacher taught Annabelle how to write her name on a sheet of paper. Now Annabelle also writes her name on the chalkboard. This is an example of which type of generalization?

a. Stimulus generalization

b. Response generalization

a. Stimulus generalization

Stimulus generalization is when a response trained in one condition occurs under different, untrained stimulus conditions.  In this example, Annabelle is taught to write her name on paper (one stimulus) and then writes her name on a chalkboard (another stimulus) without training.  Response generalization is when a response is trained and then untrained responses occur under the same stimulus condition.

Rhonda is taught to organize the materials in her office. Now, she also wipes down the furniture and sweeps the floor. This is an example of which type of generalization?

a. Stimulus generalization b. Response generalization

 b. Response generalization

Response generalization is when one response is trained and then an untrained response or rate of response occurs under the same stimulus condition.  In this example, organizing materials (one response) is trained and then wiping furniture and sweeping (untrained responses) occur in the same setting.  Stimulus generalization is when a response trained in one condition occurs under different untrained stimulus conditions.

a. Direct Replication

Direct replication involves generality of procedures across an individual.  In this example, the BCBA is training an individual to brush his teeth in one setting and repeats the training the next day in the same setting.  This is direct replication.  Systematic replication involves generality of variables and procedures across different subjects, species, and/or setting.

b. Systematic Replication

Systematic replication involves generality of variables and procedures across different subjects, species and/or settings.  In this example, the BCBA is training communication using PECS in one setting and then training the same method but in a different setting.  This is systematic replication.  Direct replication involves generality of procedures across an individual.

tematic replication involves generality of variables and procedures across different subjects, species and/or settings.  In this example, the BCBA is training communication using PECS in one setting and then training the same method but in a different setting.  This is systematic replication.  Direct replication involves generality of procedures across an individual.

❑ After three months of a pay-for-performance system being implemented within her company, Riley wants to evaluate if the improved production numbers were really the result of the system. She returns all employees to a standard hourly pay for two months. Production numbers drop, and she reinstates the pay-for-performance system. After just one month, the production numbers return to their improved rates. This is an example of which method for evaluating generality?

a. Direct replication b. Systematic replication across subjects c. Systematic replication across settings d. Systematic replication of variables

d. Systematic replication across subjects

Correct

a. Generic Extension

In generic extension, we evaluate a concept through direct and systematic replication.  This is an empirical approach to demonstrating principles and concepts.  Metaphorical extension explains something by drawing similarities between things that are different.

 b. Metaphorical extension

Correct

A. Necessary buy not sufficient

Multiple causation” means that there is more than one variable resulting in the behavior.  Each of the variables causing the behavior can either be necessary but not sufficient, or sufficient but not necessary.  “Necessary but not sufficient” means the variables must all be present for the behavior to occur.  If all are not present, the behavior will not occur, which means they are necessary but not sufficient without the other variables.  In this example, the presence of the teacher and the presentation of the task are necessary to effect the behavior.  If the teacher is present without the task, the behavior will not occur.  “Sufficient but not necessary” means that each variable can cause the behavior, but both do not have to be present.  Either variable can result in the behavior on its own.

B. Sufficient But Not Neccessary

“Multiple causation” means that there is more than one variable resulting in the behavior.  Each of the variables causing the behavior can either be necessary but not sufficient, or sufficient but not necessary.  “Sufficient but not necessary” means that each variable can cause the behavior to occur, but both do not have to be present.  Either variable can result in the behavior on its own.  In this example, the mother’s or the father’s prompt to complete homework will effect the behavior of completing homework.  Either one can be present, but both need not be.  So, their presence is sufficient but not necessary.  “Necessary but not sufficient” means the variables must all be present for the behavior to occur.  If all are not present, the behavior will not occur, which means they are necessary but not sufficient without the other variables

Radical behaviorists take what type of approach to reductionism?

a. Realistic approach

b. Pragmatic approach

c. Skeptical approach

d. Cynical approach

B. Pragmatic Approach

Radical behaviorism takes a pragmatic approach to reductionism by attempting to predict and control behavior to be used in an applied setting.  A realistic approach accepts a situation as truth as it is without looking at how to change it.  A skeptical approach in science means we do not just accept a theory or assertion without some evidence.  A cynical approach is a doubt that anything is true and there could be no evidence to prove otherwise.

D. Interpretivism

In this instance, the subjective nature of Megan’s claim would align with interpretivism.  Understanding beliefs about oneself is not a simple explanation, so reductionism is not likely the best answer in this case.  Positivism can be ruled out in this scenario since there is no justification for something that is scientifically unverifiable, and there is no discussion about aggression or beliefs being part of the whole system, allowing us to eliminate holism as an answer.

d. Reductionism

 this example, the researcher has opted to study a smaller phenomenon with more specific contextual variables rather than looking at behavior from a molar perspective.  This is more in line with reductionism since it is looking at simpler components of the larger phenomenon.  This is the opposite of holism, which would aim to study the entire group as a larger system.  Additionally, this would not be an example of positivism since the researcher is not aiming to claim a truth and attempt to verify.

A. Holism

The therapist provides a broad explanation rather than identifying all of the individual actions that contributed to her current skillset. A reductionist explanation would likely describe the individual actions that the therapist is able to do as part of the intervention. There isn’t a claim being rejected despite verifiable evidence (cynicism), nor is there a need for evidence to prove or disprove any claim in this example (scientific skepticism

b. Hit head ten times in one hour

Reductionism in behavior analysis refers to breaking down events into parts to assess and measure changes over time.  There are different levels of reductionism as we further quantify behavior.  In these examples, “Hit head ten times in one hour” is a rate measurement and more of a reduction in measurement than the other examples.  Duration of head hitting and percent of intervals of head hitting are also reductionistic approaches but are continuous and discrete measures rather than a more detailed count or rate. “Self-injurious behavior” is a qualitative description of a type of behavior and a more holistic approach.

A. Tantrum Behavior

Holism in behavior analysis refers to observing the whole behavior and describing it qualitatively.  The description of “tantrum behavior” is a more qualitative, holistic assessment of behavior.  Reductionism in behavior analysis refers to breaking down events into parts to assess and measure changes over time.  The other examples, would be duration (yelling for 10 minutes), interval (yelling during 50% of intervals) and rate (yelling four times in one day), which would be more quantitative measurements

A. True

Correct

 b. Interval recording

 quantitative analysis involves observing and measuring behavior to determine patterns of behavior across time.  It is a reductionist approach because we look at part of what is happening.  Interval recording is an example of a quantitative analysis.  A qualitative analysis is a more holistic assessment of the pattern of behavior during different times of day and in different settings.  It is a direct observation that uses methods such as narrative recording and ABC data recording to determine what is happening in the environment around the behavior.  It can lead to a quantitative analysis.  A parent interview is an indirect assessment used to obtain initial information about behavior and possible maintaining variables

B. Hypothetical Construct

In this case, there is no mediation between events, meaning the concept of pessimism is a hypothetical construct.  It is loosely created and constructed to explain why something occurs (behavior as the result of losing one’s job

B. Intervening Variable

Remember that an intervening variables mediate the relationship between other variables.  In this case, “being tired” is an intervening variable that links the relationship between “two hours of sleep” and slower response time, task engagement, and task completion

Which of the following is a danger of including mediational events in our analyses?

a. They can be viewed has having heuristic value that stimulates new research

b. Mediational events tend to be reified and used as explanations of behavior

c. Mediational events often are used to organize types of behavior that are widely different from one another

d. There are no dangers to including mediational events

b. Mediational events tend to be reified and used as explanations of behavior

Including mediational events in behavior analysis can be dangerous.  For example, “impulsivity” may be used as a mediational event when a learner chooses a smaller, immediate reinforcer over a larger, delayed reinforcer.  This becomes problematic if the term “impulsivity” is reified and then used to describe why the learner chose the small, immediate reinforcer.  If we say that the learner is “impulsive,” or chooses the small reinforcer “because he is impulsive,” we are limiting our analyses of the contingencies involved

Arthur often practiced the piano while stuck at home. After several months he played in front of his friends, and they commented on how well he played. He says he developed

a “musical sense” while spending a lot of time alone. Which is considered a mediational event?

a. Frequent practice

b. Playing well in front of his friends

c. Musical sense

d. His coworkers’ praise

C. Musical Sense

By stating that Arthur developed a musical sense due to practicing on his own, the cause of his improved piano playing is immediately attributed to that musical sense.  Instead, it is more likely that his improved playing is due to increased practice.  In this example, the mediational event of musical sense is reified and then used as a means to describe why Arthur has improved his piano playing skills.

Shauna is asked to come to the dinner table. After being asked, she continues to play for two minutes before walking to the table. Her dad says, “It takes her a while to process simple requests.” Which is considered a mediational event? a. Being asked to come to the table

b. Processing the request

c. Walking to the table

d. Playing with toys

b. Processing the request

Correct

Petra is driving to her boyfriend’s house. She’s only been to his house once. When she comes to his road, she remembers that he lives near an ugly yellow house. She scans, sees the yellow house, and turns towards it. Which is considered a mediational event?

a. Scanning for the yellow house

b. Driving to her boyfriend’s house

c. Turning towards the yellow house

d. Remembering that he lives near an ugly yellow house

d. Remembering that he lives near an ugly yellow house

In S-O-R psychology, the mediational event is attributed to the organism.  It is seen as something the organism does, following the stimulus but before the response.  In this case, Petra arrives at her boyfriend’s road (stimulus), then “remembers” where he lives (organism/mediating event), and ultimately turn towards the yellow house.  Scanning, driving, and turning are all observable, measurable responses that do not require a mediating event to explain them

A, Mental

Mental processes are mediators like intelligence and emotions.  Here, the behavior is said to occur because of frustration and anxiety; these emotions are used to explain why the response occurs.  Physiological processes are those related to neuroscience; such as biological events like physical sensations.  Cognitive processes are those like memory, which cause behavior through hypothetical constructs in the brain.  Behavioral processes are those that often exist within methodological behaviorism, where a response is said to occur because of some construct like drive or habit

Which of the following includes a mediational process in the explanation of behavior?

a. Whenever Evan has a headache, he takes a pain reliever and his headache diminishes

b. Evan’s knowledge of medication is the reason he takes a pain reliever when he has a headache

c. The sight of the pain medication serves as a discriminative stimulus signaling the availability of reinforcement

d. Evan’s pill-taking behavior has strengthened over time due to the process of reinforcement 

b. Evan’s knowledge of medication is the reason he takes a pain reliever when he has a headache

Incorrect

Which is the most parsimonious explanation?

a. Shuri has a hard time with current math tasks because it takes a long time for her to process

b. Shuri has a hard time with current math tasks because she has not sufficiently mastered the prerequisite skills

b. Shuri has a hard time with current math tasks because she has not sufficiently mastered the prerequisite skills

Correct

❑ Which is the most parsimonious explanation?

a. Moira’s low IQ makes it difficult for her to answer basic personal information questions

b. When asked a personal information question in a wh- format, a full verbal prompt is necessary to evoke a correct response from Shuri

b. When asked a personal information question in a wh- format, a full verbal prompt is necessary to evoke a correct response from Shuri

Correct

c. Based in pseudoscience

Pseudoscience falls somewhere between scientific and unscientific, while attempting to keep some impression of science.  Attributing causes to astrological signs takes pieces from astronomy, which is a true science.  However, astrology is not based in science.  Magical thinking has no foundation in reality nor does it include any component of science

B. Magical Explanation

Incorrect

D.Flat Response Generalization Gradient 

In a flat response generalization gradient, the external stimulus does not change, but aspects of the response do change.  Here, Neil engages in various response forms (i.e., labeling with common name; labeling with scientific name; reciting facts) in the presence of one stimulus (discussion of animals).  If this were a steep response generalization gradient, responding would be more “rigid” and Neil may only use the common name when talking about animals.  In a steep stimulus generalization gradient, responding occurs to one specific stimulus (i.e., Neil only labels black cats with their common name).  A flat stimulus generalization gradient would exist if Neil used the common name to label cats of different colors and sizes.

b.Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus generalization is when a response trained in one condition occurs under different, untrained stimulus conditions.  In this example, Annabelle is taught to write her name on paper (one stimulus) and then writes her name on a chalkboard (another stimulus) without training.  Response generalization is when a response is trained and then untrained responses occur under the same stimulus condition

B. Response Generalization

Response generalization is when one response is trained and then an untrained response or rate or response occurs under the same stimulus condition.  In this example, the coach trains the players to complete drills before leaving for the day and then their rate of completing drills increases without training.  Stimulus generalization is when a response trained in one condition occurs under different untrained stimulus conditions.

a. Direct Replication

ncorrect

B. Metaphorical Extension

In metaphorical extension a concept is explained by drawing similarities between things that are different to promote an understanding of a concept.  Generic extension evaluates a concept through direct and systematic replication.

A. Generic Extension

Correct

A. Metaphorical Extension

Correct

B. Generic Extension

Generic extension evaluates a concept through direct and systematic replication. In this example, the BCBA is using systematic replication by manipulating variables in the environment to affect behavior change by withholding attention from an attention-maintained behavior. Metaphorical extension explains a concept to promote understanding by drawing similarities between things that are different.