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| The study of planets through comparison of their chemical and physical properties |
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| The portion of Earth that is largely liquid water. |
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| The solid, brittle part of Earth (or any planet or moon), including the crust and the upper part of the mantle. |
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| The global sum of all living organisms on Earth (or any planet or moon) |
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| The relatively thin, outermost, hard layer of a planet, which is chemically distinct from the interior. |
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| 4 principal geological processes constantly reshape our planet (Fig 6.3): |
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-Impact cratering
-Tectonism
-Volcanism
-Erosion |
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A process involving collisions between solid planetary objects.
-leaves distinctive scars in Earth's crust that tell of large collisions in our past |
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Tectonism:
Deformation of the ___ of a planet |
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lithosphere
-Folds and breaks Earth's crust, forming mountain ranges, valleys, and deep ocean trenches, and causing earthquakes |
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| The occurence of volcanic activity on a planet or moon |
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| The degradation of a planet's surface topography by the mechanical action of wind and/or water |
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| The differences in elevation from point to point on a planetary surface |
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| ___,___, and ___ roughen up planetary surfaces; ____ smooths them down |
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| tectonism, volcanism, and impact cratering; erosion |
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| The scar of the impact left on a solid planetary or moon surface by collision with another object |
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1.)Material thrown outward by the impact of an asteroid or comet on a planetary surface, leaving a crater behind.
2.)Material thrown outward by a stellar explosion |
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| A crater formed from ejecta thrown from an impact crater |
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| A small cometary or asteroidal fragment rnging in size from 100 micrometers to 100 meters. When entering a planetary atmosphere, the meteoroid creates a meteor, which is an atmospheric phenomenon. |
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| The incandescent trail produced by a small piece of interplanetary debris as it travels through the atmosphere at very high speeds. |
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| A meteoroid that survives to reach a planet's surface |
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meteoroid, meteorites, meteor.
___ refers to the objects while they are in space; they become ___ when they pass through the atmosphere; and they end up as ___ if they survive to hit the ground. |
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| meteoroid, meteors, meteorites |
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| use of radioactive decay to measure the ages of materials such as minerals |
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| ___ and ___ together tell us the age of most of the surface of the moon |
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| craters and radiometric dating |
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| Earth's center is ___ km deep |
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| A vibration due to an earthquake, a large explosion, or an impact on the surface that travels through a planet's interior |
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| A seismic wave that travels on the surface of a planet or moon |
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| Also called P wave. A longitudinal seismic wave, in which the oscillations involve compression and decompression parallel to the direction of travel (that is, a pressure wave) |
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| ___ waves provide information about Earth's interior |
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| Also called S wave. A transverse seismic wave, which involves the sideways motion of material |
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| __ waves can travel through either solids or liquids, but __ waves travel only through solids |
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| An insturment that measures the amplitude and frequency of seismic waves |
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| The major subdivisions of Earth's interior include ___, ___, and ___ |
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| A 2 component core, a thick mantle, and a crust |
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| sorting out of material according to their densities |
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| A tide on Earth that is due to the differential gravitational pull of the moon. |
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| A tide on Earth that is due to the differential gravitational pull of the sun |
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| An especially strong tide that occurs near the time of a new or full moon, when lunar tides and solar tides reinforce each other |
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| An especially weak tide that occurs around the time of the first or third quarter moon when the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun on Earth are at right angles to each other, thus producing the least pronounced tides. |
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| ___ are caused by the change in the strength of gravity across a solid object |
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| Liquids transfer heat by ___, and solids transfer heat by ___. |
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| an object that absorbs and can reemit all electromagnetic energy it receives |
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| Also called Planck spectrum. The spectrum of electromagnetic energy emitted by a blackbody per unit area per second, which is determined only by the temperature of the object |
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| The total flux emitted by an object. Unit: watts (W) |
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| Other then ___, ___ is the only terrestrial planet with a significant magnetic field today. |
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| The lack of magnetic fields on ___ and ___ is puzzling. |
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| The slow motion (centimeters/year) of Earth's continents relative to each other and Earth's mantle |
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| A seperate piece of Earth's lithosphere capable of moving independently. |
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The geological theory concerning the motions of lithospheric plates, which in turn provides the theoretical basis for continental drift
"the theory explaining motions of Earth's crust is called plate tectonics" |
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| The transport of thermal energy from the lower (hotter) to the higher (cooler) layers of a fluid by motions within the fluid driven by variations in buoyancy |
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| A fracture in the crust of a planet or moon along which blocks of material can slide. |
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| ___'s tectonic plates are unique in the solar system |
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| Molten rock often containing dissolved gases and solid minerals |
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| A place where hot plumes of mantle material rise near the surface of a planet |
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| A fracture in the planetary lithosphere from which magma emerges |
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| A volcano formed by very fluid (fluid-moving) lava flowing from a single source and spreading out from that source |
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| A large cone-shaped volcano formed by viscous, pasty lava flows alternating with pyroclastic (explosively generated) rock deposits |
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| ___ has more volcanoes than any other planet. |
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Cratering history:
-The # of craters per unit area indicates the surface's ___
-The more craters means a ___ surface and minimal ___ activity |
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Crater History:
-volcanism, tectonism, erosion can erase ___, especially on earth
-The ____ "highlands" (lighter-colored areas) are saturated with craters
-darker regions, so-called "___" (latin for "seas", though they aren't water), have few craters |
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| stages in the formation of an impact crater: (3) |
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Definition
-impact of an object heats and compresses the surface it hits
-material thrown from site of impact. Ejecta lands around the crater, forming rays and secondary craters
-rebound of the deformed surface may form a central peak inside the crater, while melted rock pools in the crater floor, giving it a flat bottom |
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old-more craters
young-less craters |
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| A radioactive element that decays to form more stable daughter products |
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| An element resulting from radioactive decay of a more massive parent element |
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| The time it takes for half a sample of a particular radioactive parent element to decay to a daughter product |
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| With every half-life that passes, the remaining amount will decrease by a factor of __ |
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2
for example, over 3 half-lives, the final amount(Pf) of a parent radioisotope will be 1/2 x 1/2 x 1/2=1/8 of its original amount (Po). |
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| A geologist can find the age of a mineral by measuring the relative amounts of a _____ (aka ___) and the decay products it turns into |
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| radioactive element AKA radioisotope |
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| the solid portion of a rocky planet that lies between the crust and the core |
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Internal structure of the terrestrial planets
___ , ___ and ___ have small lithospheres as opposed to the remaining terrestrial planets |
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Internal structure of Earth:
rocky crust:__density
mantle:__density
Metal core:__density |
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crust-lower
mantle-medium
core-highest |
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Core of terrestrial planets:
___ has the largest core-to-mantle ratio among the terrestrials, and the moon has the smallest |
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Seismic waves travel ___(differently/same) through different materials.
P-waves travel through __ & __, and S-waves go through __ only. |
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differently;
liquids and solids;
solids |
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| P-waves=___ waves that are ___(transverse/longitudinal), like sound waves (compression) |
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| S-waves=___ waves that are ___(transverse/longitudinal), like water waves. |
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| ___(planet) has a very thick lithosphere |
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Differentiation:
-Layers ordered by ___
-Highest density on ___
-___sorts materials by density |
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| Balance between weight of overlying layers and pressure; weight compresses material |
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| In hydrostatic equilibrium, the weight of overlying layers= |
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| sum of self-gravity acting on each chuck over all chunks down to a given level. |
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| In hydrostatic equilibrium, the pressure= |
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| sum of net pressures from surface to given level, including pressure at surface, if any. |
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Hydrostatic Equilibrium:
Net pressure force= net force due to |
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| pressures on top, bottom, and sides |
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| Obviously as we go deeper and deeper the ___ must keep increasing. As it keeps increasing, the ___ also increases |
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| ___ is the reason oil floats on top of water |
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| Sources of internal heat: (4) |
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1.Gravitational potential energy of accreting planetismals
2.Differentiation(again, gravitational potential energy--of net mass flowing inwards)
3.radioactivity
4.Tidal friction |
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Cooling the terrestrial planets (heat transport):
1.
2.
3. |
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Definition
1.)Convection
2.)Conduction
3.)Radiation |
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| Convection: Hot rock __ and cooler rock __ in a mantle convection cell |
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| Conduction: After convection brings heat to the base of the lithosphere, conduction carries heat |
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| through the rigid lithosphere to the surface |
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| Radiation: At the surface, energy is |
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| radiated to space (thermal radiation or "heat radiation") |
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Thermal radiation:
-emitted by __ objects or very __ gas.
-continuous spectrum (no __) |
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| Hotter objects emit more total radiation per unit surface area per unit time |
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| Hotter objects emit short-wavelength photons (with a higher average energy) |
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| Newton's law of gravity tells us that the moon's gravity is stronger on: |
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| the side of the Earth closest to the moon |
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Tidal Friction:
The water moves against the shore and the ocean bottom. Theres a "___" force due to friction that slows the response of the ___ to the tidal force--causing a ___ |
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drag;
water;
time lag of tide |
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Tidal friction:
-Moons pull on nearer tidal buldge= torque opposing ____
-Earth's pull on Moon= torque in direction of ____
-NO external torque involved |
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Earth's rotation;
Moon's orbital motion
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| Friction insid the Earth due to tidal stress (body tides) also produce ___ |
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Tectonism:
-crustal plates are moved by ___
-Earth has __ major plates and __ smaller ones
-Most __ and __ occur along plate boundaries, because of these motions |
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Definition
convection;
7, 6;
volcanoes and earthquakes |
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Volcanism:
-erases other ___ features
-provided __ for out atmosphere(still does)
-provided ___ for our oceans (still does) |
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| ___ volcanoes are built up in layers, and ___ volcanoes are built up in violent eruptions. |
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| Tectonism and volcanism have to do with processes from: |
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Example of volcanism on:
-Moon
-Mercury
-Venus
-Mars |
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-Mare Imbrium(low-viscosity)
-volcano at edge of Caloris basin
-too many to name
-Olympus Mons(largest volcano in solar system) |
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Examples of tectonism on:
-Mercury
-Venus
-Mars
-Moon
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-Faults create cliffs on Mercury
-corona(domes of lava) is a tectonic feature on Venus
-Valles Marineris (Mariner Valley) is a large tectonic feature on Mars
-Rima Ariadaeus, a 2km-wide valley between 2 tectonic faults on the Moon |
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| The first step in the process of erosion is called: |
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| Today there is no __ water on the surface of Mars, at on time water likely flowed across its surface in __ quantities |
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__ erosion on Mars:
Surface appears to have ancient river beds |
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| ___(planet) has water ice in a crater in the North polar region. The crater wall is so high that it blocks much of the sunlight, preventing the ice from ___ |
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A large planet...
-stays __(colder/warmer) inside for __ (shorter/longer) time
-Has a __ mantle for longer time
-has a thinner __ for longer time
-which makes it more __ active for a longer time |
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warmer,longer;
convecting;
lithosphere;
geologically |
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| __ and __ are the most geologically active planets out of the terrestrials, b/c they are __ |
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