Term
| a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of classical conditioning |
|
Definition
| pavlovs dogs, at first the dogs would only salivate in the presence of meat; soon they would salivate once they heard the bell. |
|
|
Term
| a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest |
|
Definition
| neutral stimulus; an example of this is the bell in pavlovs experiment |
|
|
Term
| a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. |
|
Definition
| unconditioned stimulus; in pavlovs experiment the meat is the unconditioned stimulus |
|
|
Term
| a response that is natural and needs no training |
|
Definition
| unconditioned response; in pavlovs experiment the UR is the salivation in response to the meat |
|
|
Term
| a once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus. |
|
Definition
| conditioned stimulus; in pavlovs experiment the bell has evolved from a neutral stimulus to a conditioned stimulus. |
|
|
Term
| a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus |
|
Definition
| conditioned response; in pavlovs experiment the CR is salivation that occurs as a response to the CS (bell) |
|
|
Term
| a basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between two stimuli. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ involves changes brought about by experience; whereas maturation describes changes resulting from biological development. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ is the name of the scientist responsible for discovering the learning phenomenon known as ____ conditioning, whereby an organism learns a response to a stimulus to which it normally would not respond |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| learning to which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| giving a raise for good performance is an example of ___ |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| restricting a teenagers access to a car due to breaking curfew is an example of _____ |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| yelling at a teenager when she steals a bracelet is an example of ____ |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| applying ointment to relieve an itchy rash leads to a higher future likelihood of applying the ointment is an example of ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| reinforcement ___ the frequency of the behavior preceding it; punishment ___ the frequency of the behavior preceding it. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the application of a positive stimulus brings about an increase in the frequency of a behavior and is referred to as ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the application of a negative stimulus decreases or reduces the frequency of a behavior and is called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the removal of a negative stimulus that results in an increase in the frequency of behavior is ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the removal of a positive stimulus that decreases the frequency of a behavior is ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior |
|
Definition
| schedules of reinforcement |
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|
Term
| reinforcing of a behavior every time it occurs |
|
Definition
| continuous reinforcement schedule |
|
|
Term
| reinforcing of a behavior some but not all the time |
|
Definition
| partial reinforcement schedule |
|
|
Term
| a schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses is made |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed. |
|
Definition
| variable-interval schedule |
|
|
Term
| this type of schedule results in relatively short pauses in responding after reinforcement is provided. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in this type of schedule responding occurs at a high, steady rate |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| this type of schedule results in typically long pauses in responding after reinforcement is provided |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| this type of schedule results in responding at a steady rate |
|
Definition
| variable interval schedule |
|
|
Term
| the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| an approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning |
|
Definition
| cognitive learning theory |
|
|
Term
| learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| learning by observing the behavior of another person or model |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| reflects information from the visual system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ stores auditory information coming from the ears |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short-term memory |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ occurs when the information is considered and organized in some fashion |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organizational strategies that can vastly improve our retention of information |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a set of active, temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and rehearse information |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which the ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list an item appears |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| occurs when items presented early in a list are remembered better |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| occurs when items presented late in a list are remembered best. |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball |
|
Definition
| procedural memory aka nondeclarative memory |
|
|
Term
| memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| declarative memory can be subdivided into ___ and ___ |
|
Definition
| semantic memory; episodic memory |
|
|
Term
| memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mental representations of clusters of interconnected information |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories in a process known as ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| psychologists search for the ___, the term for the physical memory trace that corresponds to a memory |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the ___, a part of the brains limbic system plays a central role in the consolidation of memories. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where is the hippocampus located |
|
Definition
| located within the brains medial temporal lobes just behind the eyes |
|
|
Term
| the ___ aids in the initial encoding of information, acting as a kind of neurological email system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the ___, a part of the limbic system, is involved with memories involving emotions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___, shows that certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a process in which memories become fixed and stable in long-term memory |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the physical stuff of memory produced by a complex of biochemical and neural processes. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the inability to recall information that one realizes one knows - a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long term memory |
|
Definition
| tip of the tongue phenomenon |
|
|
Term
| memory task in which specific information must be retrieved |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed |
|
Definition
| levels of processing theory |
|
|
Term
| according to this approach, the depth of info processing during exposure to material - meaning the degree to which it is analyzed and consided - is critical; the greater the intensity of its initial processing, the more likely we are to remember it. |
|
Definition
| levels of processing theory |
|
|
Term
| intentional or conscious recollection of information |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| memories of which people are not consciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behavior |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| a phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept later makes it easier to recall related information, even when there is no conscious memory of the word or concept. |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| memories centered on a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| process in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organized bodies of info stored in memory that bias the way new info is interpreted, stored, and recalled |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own lives |
|
Definition
| autobiographical memories |
|
|
Term
| the loss of information in memory through its nonuse |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the phenomenon by which info in memory disrupts the recall of other info. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| interference in which info learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| interference in which there is difficulty in the recall of info learned earlier because of later exposure to different material. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| an illness characterized in part by severe memory problems |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| amnesia in which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| amnesia in which memory is lost for events that follow an injury |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a disease that afflicts long term alcoholics, leaving some abilities intact but includes hallucinations and a tendency to repeat the same story. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| representations in the mind of an object or event |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| typical, highly representative examples of a concept |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| formal reasoning in which people draw a conclusion from a set of assumptions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or a decision, but - unlike algorithms - may sometimes lead to errors. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a rule we apply when we judge people by the degree to which they represent a certain category or group of people |
|
Definition
| representativeness heuristic |
|
|
Term
| the ___ involves judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled from memory |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ require the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements in a way that will satisfy a certain condition |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in ___ a person must identify the existing relationships among the elements presented and then construct a new relationship among them. |
|
Definition
| problems of inducing structure |
|
|
Term
| ___ consist of an initial state, goal state, and a method of changing the initial state into the goal state |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to exist |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the tendency to seek out and weight more heavily info that supports ones initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory info that supports alternative hypothesis or solutions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the ability to generate unusual , yet nonetheless appropriate, responses to problems or questions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the ability to produce responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| intelligence that reflects information processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that are learned through experience and can be applied in problem-solving situations |
|
Definition
| crystallized intelligence |
|
|
Term
| Gardners intelligence theory that proposes that there are 8 different spheres of intelligence |
|
Definition
| theory of multiple of intelligences |
|
|
Term
| according to sternberg, intelligence related to overall success in living |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| tests devised to quantify a persons level of intelligence |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the age for which a given level of performance is average or typical |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a score that takes into account an individuals mental and chronological ages. |
|
Definition
| intelligence quotient (IQ) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (mental age / chronological age) x 100 |
|
|
Term
| the property by which tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the property by which tests actually measure what they are supposed to measure |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one persons score on a test with the scores of other individuals who have taken the same test |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a condition characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills |
|
Definition
| mental retardation (or intellectual disability) |
|
|
Term
| the most common cause of mental retardation in newborns, occurring when the mother uses alcohol during pregnancy |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mental retardation in which no apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of retardation in the family |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 2-4% segment of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a test that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| any enduring change in behavior that results from an experience |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| learning that certain events occur together. example eating chocolate = happiness |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a learning process that occurs through association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| learning that occurs from +/- reinforcement/punishment to influence behavior |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| learning through association; correlation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how is extincting achieved in classical conditioning |
|
Definition
| repeatedly presenting conditioned stimulus without unconditioned stimulus |
|
|
Term
| explain spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning |
|
Definition
| after extinction, presentation of cs can still cause response |
|
|
Term
| who began operant conditioning |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| responses that lead to satisfying conclusions are more likely to be repeated. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how did bf skinner extend the basic law of effect? |
|
Definition
| said that any response which is followed by a reinforcing stimulus will occur more frequently in the future. |
|
|
Term
| general model for operant conditioning |
|
Definition
sd - r - sr
discriminating stimulus - response - reinforcing stimulus |
|
|
Term
| in operant conditioning, when does extinction happen? |
|
Definition
| when the behavior stops being reinforced |
|
|
Term
| putting together a series of behaviors that have all been shaped |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is variable or fixed interval schedule more resistant to extinction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are primary reinforcers |
|
Definition
| basic biological reinforcers such as food and water |
|
|
Term
| what are secondary reinforcers? |
|
Definition
| items that had to be learned; such as money |
|
|
Term
| research shows that ___ is far more successful than ___ |
|
Definition
| reinforcement; punishment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. tends to suppress behavior only under certain circumstances
2. can create anxiety, anger, or hosility
3. usually punishment does not suggest an alternative
4. modeling as a way to solve problems (physical punishment can lead to agressive behavior)
5. focuses attention on unwanted behavior |
|
|
Term
| when will punishment be most effective |
|
Definition
1. apply swiftly
2. just severe enough to be effective
3. be consistent
4. logical consequences
5. explain punishment; give alternatives |
|
|
Term
| what are the contents of long term memory |
|
Definition
| procedural and declarative memory |
|
|
Term
| what makes up declarative memory |
|
Definition
1. semantic memory: info stored away, such as jeopardy questions
2. episodic memory: may or may not be equivalent to what really happened; is more of a reconstructive process |
|
|
Term
| focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| certain neural pathways become more easily activated |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| process by which memories become fixed and stable in LTM |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| stimuli that allow us to more easily recall info in LTM |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| loss of info through non-use |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mental activities associated with processing, understanding, and communicating info |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
preparation -> production -> judgement
or
1. define the problem
2. devise a strategy
3. implement the strategy
4. evaluate and revise |
|
|
Term
| problems where one must discover the relationships among the parts of the problem. example: ottffsse _ _ _ |
|
Definition
| problems of inducing structure |
|
|
Term
| problems where one must arrange parts in order to establish some criteria. example: arrange glasses in full - empty order |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| problems where one must carry out sequence of transformations to reach a specific goal; initial state to goal state. |
|
Definition
| problems of transformation |
|
|
Term
| the tendency to ignore statistics and focus on the particulars |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| systematic procedures guarenteed to find solutions if correctly applied |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that may lead to solution; does not guarentee solution but might increase the chances |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| repeatedly testing the difference between the desired outcome and what currently exists |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sudden flash of understanding |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when we continue to work on a problem from the same ways we have used in the past. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when we just seek out info that confirms our original hypothesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| making a decision based on how wee the individual/idea/event matches a particular prototype |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| judging the probability of an event based on how easily we can recall info in memory |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| spearmans one item that defines intelligence |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| gardners multiple intelligences |
|
Definition
1. linguistic
2. logical-mathmatical
3. spatial
4. bodily-kinesthetic
5. musical
6. interpersonal
7. intrapersonal
8. naturalistic. |
|
|
Term
| steinbergs triarchic theory |
|
Definition
conventional (analytical)
creative practical |
|
|
Term
| extent to which the test yields consistent scores |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| extent to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ways to measure reliability |
|
Definition
| test - retest and split half comparison |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| content and criterion (comparison against others) |
|
|
Term
| system that encodes, stores, and retrieves info |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| fleeting memory of an image, sound, or other sensation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| duration and capacity of sensory memory |
|
Definition
| fractions of a second; 9-12 units |
|
|
Term
| limited capacity, limited duration system where information is first interpreted for meaning |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| duration and capacity of short term memory |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| grouping familiar stimuli as a single unit |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Processor of conscious experience
“Mental workspace”
Deals with information from sensory memory as well as information retrieved from LTM |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 things about working memory |
|
Definition
1. Central executive
2. Phonological loop (acoustic encoding)
3. Visual sketchpad (visual/spatial encoding)
4. Episodic buffer |
|
|
Term
| long term memory has ___ capacity and duration |
|
Definition
|
|
