Term
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Definition
The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal
meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or
freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence. |
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Term
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Definition
The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in “she sells sea
shells”). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay
passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage. |
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Term
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Definition
A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place,
or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and
a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion. |
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Term
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Definition
| The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage. |
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Term
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Definition
A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain
something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also
make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging. |
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Term
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Definition
The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of
a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. A question from the 2001 AP test as an example
follows:
“But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that it is never
absolutely novel to the meanest of minds; it exists eternally, by way of germ of latent principle, in the lowest as
in the highest, needing to be developed but never to be planted.”
The antecedent of “it” (bolded) is...? [answer: “all truth”] |
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Term
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Definition
| the opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite. |
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Term
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Definition
A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is
unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the
author’s point. |
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Term
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Definition
A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty
or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional
intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: /
England hath need of thee.” Another example is Keats’ “Ode to a Grecian Urn,” in which Keats addresses the urn itself:
“Thou still unravished bride of quietness.” Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object addressed. |
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Term
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Definition
The emotional nod created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the
author’s choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the
atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood |
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Term
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Definition
a verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a person’s distinctive physical
features or other characteristics. |
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Term
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Definition
A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete
thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence and must
be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author
subordinates one element should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing. |
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Term
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Definition
The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing,
colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional
dialects. |
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Term
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Definition
A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar
objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made. |
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Term
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Definition
The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas,
emotions, or attitudes. |
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Term
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Definition
The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. (Example: the denotation
of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.) |
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Term
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Definition
Related to style, diction refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or
effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author’s diction (for example, formal or informal,
ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author’s purpose. Diction, combined with
syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style. |
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Term
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Definition
From the Greek, didactic literally means “teaching.” Didactic words have the primary aim of teaching or instructing,
especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles. |
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Term
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Definition
From the Greek for “good speech,” euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally
unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to
add humor or ironic understatement. Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of euphemism. |
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Term
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Definition
| A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work. |
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Term
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Definition
Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and
vivid. |
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Term
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Definition
A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include
apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement. |
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Term
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Definition
This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example,
they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam,
try to distinguish the unique features of a writer’s work from those dictated by convention. |
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Term
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Definition
The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama.
However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres
themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies,
autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy,
comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving
moral or spiritual advice. |
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Term
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Definition
A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is “overshoot.”)
Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. The
opposite of hyperbole is understatement. |
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Term
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Definition
The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical
level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and
deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery
while also representing the color in a woman’s cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use
complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition,
this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. |
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Term
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Definition
To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice question asks for an
inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an
inference is implausible, it’s unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not
inferred and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation – negative or positive – of the choices. |
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Term
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Definition
| an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. |
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Term
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Definition
The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to
be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor. |
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Term
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Definition
a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its
opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: “Not a bad idea,” “Not many,” “It isn’t very serious. I have this
tiny little tumor on the brain” |
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Term
| loose sentence/non-periodic sentence |
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Definition
A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by
dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause,
the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or
conversational. Generally, loose sentences create loose style. |
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Term
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Definition
A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other,
suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and
meaningful. |
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Term
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Definition
A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,” metonymy is a figure of speech
in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. |
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Term
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Definition
The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. Mood is similar
to tone and atmosphere. |
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Term
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Definition
| The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events. |
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Term
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Definition
| A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. |
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Term
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Definition
From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently
contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include “jumbo shrimp” and “cruel kindness.” This term
does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take
note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron. |
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Term
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Definition
A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains
some degree of truth or validity. (Think of the beginning of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities: “It was the best of times, it was
the worst of times....”) |
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Term
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Definition
Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning “beside one
another.” It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural
similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal
phrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities is an example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of
times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch of
incredulity....”) The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the
reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm. |
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Term
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Definition
A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines
or sentences. |
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Term
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Definition
A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. It
exploits peculiarities of an author’s expression (propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.)
Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation.
Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the
nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don’t require knowledge of
the original. |
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Term
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Definition
An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish (language that
might be described as “show-offy”; using big words for the sake of using big words). |
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Term
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Definition
The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This
independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add
emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence. |
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Term
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Definition
A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by
endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects
appear more vivid to the reader. |
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Term
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Definition
In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view, and many subdivisions within those.
(1) first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character.
(2) third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,” and “it.” There are two main subdivisions to be aware of:
a. third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters
b. third person limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one
character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters. In addition, be aware that the term point of view carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze theauthor’s point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author’s attitude. |
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Term
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Definition
one of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms. In prose the printer
determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the line. |
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Term
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Definition
The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause,
sentence, or grammatical pattern. |
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Term
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Definition
From the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and
persuasively. |
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Term
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Definition
| This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. |
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Term
| rhetorical modes: expository writing |
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Definition
explain and analyze information by presenting an idea,
relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. |
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Term
| rhetorical modes: argumentation |
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Definition
is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning,
discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. |
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Term
| rhetorical modes: persuasive |
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Definition
writing is a type of argumentation having
an additional aim of urging some form of action. |
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Term
| rhetorical modes: description |
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Definition
is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader
can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive
writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly
emotional an subjective. |
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