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| maintained that personality and ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance (human traits are inherited) |
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| theory of evolution, survival of the fittest-origin of the species |
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introspection-psychology became the scientific study of conscious experience (rather than science); father of
modern or scientific psychology; structuralism was the approach and introspection was the methodology |
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founder of behaviorism; generalization; applied classical conditioning skills to advertising; most famous for Little
Albert experiment, where he first trained Albert to be afraid of rats and then to generalize his fear to all small, white
animals |
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Neo-Freudian; believed that childhood social, not sexual, tensions are crucial for personality formation; believed that
people are primarily searching or self-esteem and achieving the ideal self |
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disciple of Freud who extended his theories; believed in a collective unconscious as well as a personal unconscious that is
aware of ancient archetypes which we inherit from our ancestors and we see in myths (young warrior, wise man of the
village, loving mother, etc.); coined the terms introversion and extroversion |
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three levels of traits-- 1. cardinal trait- dominant trait that characterizes your life, 2. central trait- common to all
people, 3. secondary trait- surfaces in some situations and not in others |
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father of Rational Emotive Therapy, which focuses on altering client’s patterns of irrational thinking to reduce
maladaptive behavior and emotion (like, “if I fail the AP exam my life will come to an end”) |
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humanist psychologist who said we have a series of needs which must be met; you can’t achieve the top level, selfactualization,
unless the previous levels have been achieved; from bottom to top the levels are physiological needs, safety,
belonging, self-esteem, self-actualization; lower needs dominate and individual’s motivation as long as they are unsatisfied |
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humanistic psychologist who believed in unconditional positive regard; people will naturally strive for self-actualization
and high self-esteem, unless society taints them; reflected back clients thoughts so that they developed a self-awareness or their feelings; client-centered therapy |
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operant conditioning-- techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism’s behavior in order to observe the
effects of subsequent behavior; Skinner box; believed psychology was not scientific enough; wanted it to be believed
everyone is born tableau rosa (blank slate); NOT concerned with unconscious or cause, only behavior |
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father of classical conditioning-- an unconditional stimulus naturally elicits a reflexive behavior called an
unconditional response, but with repeated pairings with a neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus will elicit the response |
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believed there are an infinite number of sentences in a language and that humans have an inborn native ability to
develop language; words and concepts are learned but the brain is hardwired for grammar and language |
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four-state theory of cognitive development-- sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational;
two basic processes (assimilation and accommodation) work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth |
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people evolve through 8 states over the life span; each state is marked by psychological crisis that involves
confronting “who am I” |
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his theory states that there are 3 levels of moral reasoning (pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional)
and each level can be divided into 2 stages |
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maintained the Kohlberg’s work was developed only observing boys and overlooked potential differences between
the habitual moral judgment of men and women |
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| personality is determined to a large extent by genes; used the terms extroversion and introversion |
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| believed that to experience emotions one must be physically aroused and must then label the arousal |
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| systemic desensitization; maintained that fear could be unlearned; Little Peter experiment |
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| his hypothesis is that language determines the way we think |
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triarchic theory of intelligence- [1] academic problem-solving intelligence [2] practical intelligence [3]
creative intelligence |
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| theory of multiple intelligences |
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observational learning- allows you to profit immediately from the mistakes and successes of others; his experiment
had adult models punching BoBo dolls and then observed children whom watched begin to exhibit many of the same
behaviors; social learning theory |
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| law of effect-the principle that behavior followed by favorable consequences becomes more likely and vice versa |
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| revised Binet’s I.Q. test and established norms for American children |
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| established an intelligence test especially for adults (Weschler Intelligence Test for Adults) |
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found that specific mental talents were highly correlated; concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a
common core which he labeled “g” for general ability |
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developed one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot Test; subject reads the inkblots and projects to the observer
aspects of their personality |
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conducted the famous Stanford Prison Experiment; studied the power of social roles to influence peoples
behavior; proved people’s behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play; experiment had to be
stopped because it got out of control |
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conducted a hospital experiment to test the diagnosis that hospitals make on patients; wanted to see the impact of
behavior on being a patient; proved that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, your care would not be very good in a
mental hospital setting |
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| study of conformity; experiment had a subject unaware of his situation to test if he would conform if all the members of a group gave an obviously incorrect answer |
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conducted a study on obedience when he had a subject shock a patient to the extent that they would be seriously
injuring the patient |
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studied theory of attachment in infant Rhesus monkeys; also experimented on the effects of social isolation in young
monkeys and observed that they become severely emotionally disturbed and never recover fully |
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theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment;
endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), ectomorphic (skinny) |
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Definition
psychoanalytical theory that focuses on the unconscious; id, ego, superego; believed innate drives for sex and
aggression are the primary motives for our behavior and personalities |
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Definition
criticized Freud; said that personality is continually molded by current fears and impulses rather than being
determined solely by childhood experiences; saw humans as craving love and social interaction to drive their needs |
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Definition
learned helplessness is the giving up reaction that occurs from the experience that whatever you do you cannot
change your situation |
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| first to conduct scientific studies on memory and forgetting; learning curves; |
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| did a study of the activities of neurons in the visual cortex |
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believed that gastric activity in an empty stomach was the sole reason for hunger; did experiment by inserting
balloon in subjects stomach |
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pioneered the first study on JND (just noticeable difference), which become Weber’s Law; the JND between stimuli is
a constant fraction of the intensity of the standard stimulus |
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Definition
theory proposes that the terminally ill pass through a sequence of 5 stages- [1]denial,
[2]anger/resentment, [3]bargaining, [4]depression, [5]acceptance |
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| mere exposure effect; it is possible to have preferences without inferences and to feel without knowing why |
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stated that the need to achieve varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach
success and evaluate their own performances; devised the TAT (Thematic Appreciation Test) with Christina D. Morgan |
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devised a way to measure H. Murray’s theory-“the need to achieve that varied in strength in different people
and influenced their tendency to approach success and evaluate their own performances”; credited with developing the
scoring system for the TAT’s use in assessing achievement motivation, not for the TAT itself |
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| theory that facial expressions are universal |
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studied adolescent stage of Erikson; divided adolescent into four groups- foreclosed(having parents identity),
achieved (your own identity), diffused (not even searching, living day-to-day), moratorium (actively searching for identity) |
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| we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished |
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| children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male or female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly |
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| predicts how and when we detect the presences of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation |
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Term
| Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory |
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Definition
the retina contains three different color receptors--one most sensitive to red, one to green,
Trichromatic Theory one to blue--which when stimulated in a combination, can produce the perception of any color |
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Term
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Definition
| opposing retinal processes enable color vision (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) |
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| the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch |
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| links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated |
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| the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain |
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| the idea that psychological need creates an aroused tension state that motivates an organism to satisfy the needs |
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| our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli |
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Term
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Definition
| an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion |
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| Schachter’s theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal |
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| we tend to give a casual explanation for someone’s behavior, often by creating either the situation or the person’s disposition |
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| Cognitive-Dissonance Theory |
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| we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent |
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| prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame |
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Term
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| our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs |
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| your prediction of how the experiment will come out, based upon a theory |
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Definition
all cases in a study; group from which samples are drawn. If you were studying teen driving for instance, teens would
be your population; the specific teens you studied would be your sample. Ideally, all the teens would have an equal chance
to be subjects to have a perfect random sample, but if the group you choose from is representative of the population,
(meaning same proportion of gender, ethnicity, age, etc) and all of those have an equal chance of being chosen, then you
have a random sample. |
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| the group you are doing the actual experiment on. They should all have had the same chance of being selected from the population. See above. |
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the way in which you assign members of the random sample to the control or experimental group. Again,
each member of the random sample should have an equal chance of being selected to each group. Try to keep all things
equal. Wait until everyone is there and randomly select them. |
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| the person you are doing an experiment on; a member of the random sample who has been randomly assigned. |
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a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. Spell out what you are comparing and how
you are going to measure and compare the dependent variable. |
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the experimental fact that is going to be manipulated or changed. You will compare the results of this fact
to a baseline or control group on which the variable was not done (called a between subjects design), or you may
compare the group in a before-and-after scenario, in which their original state or scores act as your baseline or control
group (within subject design). For instance, if you wanted to test the effects of watching the Simpsons on mood, your
population might be Americans. You would get a random sample for a representative population of Americans chosen
from phone books. Randomly assign those people to two groups, one who watches the Simpons(experimental group) and
one that doesn’t (control group). The independent variable would be watching the Simposns. Give each group a mood test
at a certain time before the independent variable is introduced. The results should be the same because they are a random
sample randomly assigned from the same population. Have the subject watch the Simpsons, and the control group not
watch the Simpsons. Re-administer the mood test and compare the resulting mood change (dependent variable). Or, in
this case, a within subjects design would be feasible and you could administer the mood test to the random sample over a
period of days to find out each members typical mood at 7:30 p.m. on a “typical day”. Then, allow them to watch the
Simpsons every day for a week and then measure their mood afterward and compare the results. The sample would then
serve as its own control group |
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| the group being experimented on or acted upon by the independent variable. See above. |
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| group compared to the experimental group to see if any change has occurred because of the independent variable |
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behavior or mental process that is being tested; the behavior or mental process that changes because of the
introduction of the independent variable. The results of the experiment are compared to the behavior or mental process
before and after, or against the control group of the dependent variable. |
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| the outcome in quantitive or measurable behavioral terms comparing the dependent variable before and after |
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your assessment of the experiment based on the results. Did it prove our hypothesis? Did you discover control
problems? What further study might be needed? |
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| Control of Possible Confounding Variables |
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Definition
steps you take to make sure your random samples are as identical as possible and that
the environment in which they are tested are as similar as possible. |
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Definition
uncontrolled variables that affect the control group and experimental group affecting your results. It could
be things like time of day being different, using a male voice in one group and a female in another, and other distracting |
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Term
| Double Blink as a Control for Experimenter Bias |
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Definition
if you’re asked to control for experimenter bias, you can’t go wrong by using a
double blind technique, wherein neither the experimenter nor the subject know who is in the control group or
experimental group so that they wont’ sway the results. The experimenter may know the intent of the study. To be
even purer, you could use a tester who doesn’t even know what he/she is testing for. |
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| the sum of a list of numbers, divided by the total number of numbers in the list |
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“middle value” of a list; the smallest number such that at least half the numbers in the list are no
greater than it. If the list has an odd number of entries, the median is the middle entry in the list after sorting the
list into increasing order. If the list has an even number of entries, the median is equal to the sum of the two
middle (after sorting) numbers divided by two. |
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| for lists, the mode is the most common (frequent) value. A list can have more than one mode. For histograms, a mode is a relative maximum (“bump”). |
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Definition
tells how spread out numbers are from the average; calculated by taking the square root
of the arithmetic average of the squares of the deviations from the mean in a frequency distribution. |
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