Term
|
Definition
| (Blank) is the writer’s attempt to convince his reader to agree with him. It is based upon appeals to reason, evidence proving the (blank), and sometimes emotion to persuade. Some (blanks) attempt to merely prove a point, but others go beyond proving to inciting the reader to action. At the heart of all (blank) lies a debatable issue. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A rhetorical mode used to develop an essay whose primary aim is to depict a scene, person, thing, or idea. (Blank) writing evokes the look, feel, sound, and sense of events, people, or things. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Writing whose chief aim is to explain. Rather than showing, as in narration, (blank) tells. A majority of essays contain some (blank) because they need to convey information, give background, or tell how events occurred or processes work. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A reference to some famous literary work, historical figure, or event. For example, to say that a friend "has the patience of Job" means that he is as enduring as the Biblical figure of that name. (Blanks) must be used with care lest the audience miss their meaning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (Blanks) often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, (blank) produces irony at the same time. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| word choice. (Blank) refers to the choice of words a writer uses in an essay or other writing. Implicit in the idea of (blank) is a vast vocabulary of synonyms - different words that have more or less equivalent meanings. If only one word existed for every idea or condition, (blank) would not exist. But since we have a choice of words with various shades of meaning, a writer can and does choose among words to express ideas. The (blank) of skilled writers is determined by the audience and occasion of their writing. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A/n (blank) is a phrase or expression that evokes a picture or describes a scene. A/n (blank) may be either literal, in which case it is a realistic attempt to depict with words what something looks like, or figurative, in which case the expression is used that likens the thing described to something else (e.g., "My love is like a red, red rose."). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The way a writer writes. The expression of an author’s individuality through the use of words, sentence patterns, and selection of details Any of the choices writers make while writing—about diction, sentence length, structure, rhythm, and figures of speech—that make their work sound like them. The tone of a particular work can be due in part to a writer’s (blank). James Baldwin is known for his distinctive (blank), one aspect of which is the mixing of formal, sometimes biblical, language and an everyday, conversational s(blank), as in this sentence from "Notes of a Native Son" (p. 39 in 50 Essays): "I had declined to believe in that apocalypse which had been central to my father’s vision; very well, life seemed to be saying, here is something that will certainly pass for an apocalypse until the real thing comes along.". Advice to fledgling writers: Develop a (blank) that combines sincerity with clarity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The use of language in such a way that apparent meaning contrasts sharply with the real meaning. One famous example (in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar) is Antony’s description of Brutus as "an honorable man." Since Brutus was one of Caesar’s assassins, Antony meant just the opposite. (Blank) is a softer form of sarcasm and shares with it the same contrast between apparent and real meaning. In general, there are three major types of (blank) used in language: (1) In verbal (blank), the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s) true meaning. (2) In situational (blank), events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and readers think ought to happen is what does happen. (3) In dramatic (blank), facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work. (Blank) is used for many reasons, but frequently, it’s used to create poignancy or humor. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A figurative image that implies the similarity between things otherwise dissimilar, as when the poet Robert Frost states "I have been acquainted with the night," meaning that he has survived despair. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The pervading impression made on the feelings of the reader. For instance, Edgar
Allan Poe often created a (blank) of horror in his short stories. A (blank) can be gloomy, sad, joyful, bitter, frightening, and so forth. A writer can create as many (blanks) as his emotional range suggests. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An account of events as they happen. A (blank) organizes material on the basis of chronological order or pattern, stressing the sequence of events and pacing these events according to the emphasis desired. (Blank) is often distinguished from three other modes of writing: argumentation, description and exposition. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The speed at which a piece of writing moves along. (Blank) depends on the balance between summarizing action and representing action in detail. Syntax can also affect (blank). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. The first scene of Macbeth, for example, closes with the witches’ cryptic remark "Fair is foul, and foul is fair." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The principle of coherent writing requiring that coordinating elements be given the same grammatical form, as in Daniel Webster’s dictum, "I was born an American; I will live an American; I will die an American." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The principle of clarity and logical adherence to a topic that binds together all parts of a composition. A (blank) essay is one whose parts--sentences, paragraphs, pages--are logically fused into a single whole. Its opposite is an in(blank) essay--one that is jumbled, illogical, and unclear. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. As comedy, (blank) distorts or exaggerates distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weaknesses in the original. Well-written (blank) offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written (blank) offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being (blanked) in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, (blanks) take on a life of their own and don’t require knowledge of the original. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Attributing human qualities to objects, abstractions, or animals: "Tis beauty calls and glory leads the way." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Said of a word or expression used in a nonliteral way. For example. The expression "to go the last mile" may have nothing at all to do with geographical distance, but may mean to complete an unfinished task or job. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The perspective from which a piece of writing is developed. In nonfiction the (blank) is usually the author’s. In fiction the (blank) can be first- or third-person (blank). In the first-person (blank), the author becomes part of the narration and refers to himself as "I." In the third-person (blank) the narrator simply observes the action of the story. Third-person narrative is either omniscient (when the narrator knows everything about all of the characters) or limited (when the narrator knows only those things that might be apparent to a sensitive observer.) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A figure of speech which, like the metaphor, implies a similarity between things otherwise
dissimilar. The (blank), however, always uses the words like, as, or so to introduce the comparison: "As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman which is without discretion." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The art of using persuasive language. The art of analyzing all the choices involving language that a writer, speaker, reader, or listener might make in a situation so that the text becomes meaningful, purposeful, and effective; the specific features of texts, written or spoken, that cause them to be meaningful, purposeful, and effective for readers or listeners in a situation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The characteristic of selecting facts, words, or emphasis to achieve a preconceived intent: Favorable intent: "Although the Senator looks bored, when it comes time to vote he is on the right side of the issue." Unfavorable intent: "The Senator may vote on the right side of the issues, but he always looks bored." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," a/n (blank) is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
this flexible term describe the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four most common (blank) and their purposes are as follows: (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently set up as expository topics. (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action. (3) The purpose of description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing. These four writing modes are sometimes referred to as modes of discourse
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An argument that attacks the integrity or character of an opponent rather than the merits of an issue. ((Blank) is Latin for "to the man.") It is also informally known as "mud-slinging." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A comparison that attempts to explain one idea or thing by likening it to another. (Blank) is
useful if handled properly, but it can be a source of confusion if the compared items are basically unalike |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a brief narrative offered in a text to capture the audience’s attention or to support a generalization or claim. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
one of three strategies for persuading audiences—appeal to ethics
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| appeal to emotion, an appeal to feelings rather than to strict reason; a legitimate ploy in an argument as long as it is not excessively or exclusively used. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the situation that results when a writer or speaker constructs an argument on an assumption that the audience does not accept. |
|
|
Term
| Casual Relationship (cause-and-effect-relationship) |
|
Definition
| The relationship expressing, "If X is the cause, then Y is the effect," or "If Y is the effect, then X caused it"—for example, "If the state builds larger highways, then traffic congestion will just get worse because more people will move to the newly accessible regions," or "If students plagiarize their papers, it must be because the Internet offers them such a wide array of materials from which to copy." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a word or expression acceptable in informal usage but inappropriate in formal discourse. A given word may have a standard as well a (blank) meaning. Bug, for example, is standard when used to refer to an insect; when used to designate a virus, i.e. "She's at home recovering from a bug," the word is a (blank). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The final paragraph or paragraphs that sum up an essay and bring it to a close. Effective (blanks) vary widely, but some common tacks used by writers to end their essays include summing up what has been said, suggesting what ought to be done, specifying consequences that are likely to occur, restating the beginning, or taking the reader by surprise with an unexpected ending. Most important of all, however, is to end the essay artfully and quietly without staging a grand show for the reader’s benefit. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the implication of emotional overtones of a word rather than its literal meaning. Lion, used in a literal sense, denotes a beast (see denotation). But to say that Winston Churchill had "the heart of a lion" is to use the (blank) or implied meaning of lion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A rhetorical principle that requires stress to be given to important elements in an essay at the expense of less important elements. (Blank) may be given to an idea in various parts of a composition. In a sentence, words may be (blanked) by placing them at the beginning or end or by judiciously italicizing them. In a paragraph, ideas may be (blanked) by repetition or by the accumulation of specific detail. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| From the French word for "attempt," the (blank) is a short prose discussion of a single topic. (Blanks) are sometimes classified as formal or informal. A formal (blank) is aphoristic, structured, and serious. An informal (blank) is personal, revelatory, humorous, and somewhat loosely structured. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| from the Greek word for "good speech," (blanks) are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The (blank) may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse" is an example of (blank). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an instance that is representative of an idea or claim or that otherwise illustrates it. The (blank) mode of development is used in essays that make a claim and then prove it by citing similar and supporting cases. See, for (blank), the essays in Chapter 7. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a statement that asserts some broad truth based upon a knowledge of specific cases. For instance, the statement "Big cars are gas guzzlers" is a (blank) about individual cars. (Blanks) are the end products of inductive reasoning, where a basic truth may be inferred about a class after experience with a representative number of its members. One should, however, beware of rash or faulty (blanks)—those made on insufficient experience or evidence. It was once thought, for example, that scurvy sufferers were malingerers, which led the British navy to the policy of flogging the victims of scurvy aboard its ships. Later, medical research showed that the lethargy of scurvy victims was an effect rather than the cause of the disease. The real disease was found to be a lack of vitamin C in their diet |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Errors in reasoning used by speakers or writers, sometimes in order to dupe their audiences. Most (blanks) are based on insufficient evidence ("All redheads are passionate lovers"); or irrelevant information ("Don't let him do the surgery; he cheats on his wife"); or faulty logic ("If you don't quit smoking, you'll die of lung cancer"). |
|
|
Term
| Objective and Subjective Writing |
|
Definition
| Two different attitudes toward description. In (blank) writing the author tries to present the material fairly and without bias; in (blank*) writing the author stresses personal responses and interpretations. For instance, news reporters should be (blank) whereas poetry can be (blank*). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A side issue introduced into an argument in order to distract from the main argument. It is a common device of politicians: "Abortion may be a woman’s individual right, but have you considered the danger of the many germ-infested abortion clinics?" Here the side issue of the dirty clinics clouds the ethical issue of the right or wrong of having an abortion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| from the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," (blank) involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are (blank), that is, intending to ridicule. When well done, (blank) can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it’s simply cruel. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Often an attack on a person. Also the use of wit and humor in order to ridicule society’s weaknesses so as to correct them. In literature, two types of (blank) have been recognized: Horatian (blank), which is gentle and smiling; Juvenalian (blank) which is sharp and biting. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Expressing in a dependent clause, phrase, or single word any idea that is not significant enough to be expressed in a main clause or an independent sentence:
Lacking (blank): John wrote his research paper on Thomas Jefferson; he was interested in this great statesman.
With (blank): Because John was interested in Thomas Jefferson, he wrote his research paper on this great statesman. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In every writing, (blank) is the reflection of the writer’s attitude toward subject and audience. The (blank) can be personal, formal or informal, objective or subjective. (Blank) may also be expressed by a (blank) of voice such as irony, sarcasm, anger, humor, satire, hyperbole, or understatement. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A way of deliberately representing something as less than it is in order to stress its magnitude. Also called litotes. A good writer will restrain the impulse to hammer home a point and will use (blank) instead. An example is the following line from Oscar Wilde's play The Importance of Being Earnest: "To lose one parent, Mr. Worthing, maybe regarded as a misfortune; to lose both looks like carelessness." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The presence or the sound of self chosen by the author. Most good writing sounds like someone delivering a message. The aim in a good student writing is to sound natural. Of course, the (blank) will be affected by the audience and occasion for writing. (Blank) is closely related to style. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| words or phrases denoting ideas, qualities, and conditions that exist but cannot be seen. Love, for example, is a/n (blank) term; so are happiness, beauty, and patriotism. The opposite of (blank) terms are concrete ones—words that refer to things that are tangible, visible, or otherwise physically evident. Hunger is (blank), but hamburger is concrete. The best writing blends the abstract with the concrete, with concrete terms used in greater proportion to clarify (blank) ones. Writing two steeped in (blank) words or terms tends to be vague and unfocused. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A fallacious argument that appeals to the passions and prejudices of a group rather than its reason. An appeal for instance, to support an issue because it’s the "American Way" is a/n (blank). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some (blanks), for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The (blank) meaning usually deals with moral truth or generalization about human existence. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the repetition of a group of words at the beginning of successive clauses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) A/n (blank) can be a memorable summation of the author’s point. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A writer’s intellectual position or emotion regarding the subject of the writing. In essay sections, expect to be asked what the writer’s (blank) is and how his or her language conveys that (blank). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The group for whom a work is intended. For a writer, the (blank) is the reader who the
writer desires to persuade, inform, or entertain. Common sense tells us that a writer should always
write to the level and needs of the particular (blank) for whom the writing is meant. For example, if
you are writing for an unlettered (blank), it is pointless to cram your writing with many literary allusions whose meanings will likely be misunderstood. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The ultimate conclusion, generalization, or point, backed up by support, of an argument. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A stale image or expression, and the bane of good expository writing. "White as a ghost" is a
(blank); so is "busy as a bee." Some clever writers can produce an effect by occasionally inserting a
(blank) in their prose, but most simply invent a fresh image rather than cull one from the public stock. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A rhetorical mode used to develop essays that systematically match two items for similarities and differences. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A sentence with one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Said of words or terms denoting objects or conditions that are palpable, visible, or otherwise evident to the senses. (Blank) is the opposite of abstract. The difference between the two is a matter of degrees. Illness, for example is abstract; ulcer is concrete; "sick to the stomach" falls somewhere between the two. The best writing usually expresses abstract propositions in (blank) terms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the logical bases or supports for an assertion or idea. Logical arguments consist of at least
three elements: propositions, reasoning, and evidence. The first of these consists of the ideas that the
writer advocates or defends. The logical links by which the argument is advanced make up the second.
The statistics, facts, anecdotes and testimonial support provided by the writer in defense of the idea
constitute the evidence. In a research paper, evidence consisting of paraphrases or quotations from the
works of other writers must be documented in a footnote, endnote, or parenthetical reference. See also
argumentation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term: within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The reversal of the normal order of words in a sentence to achieve some desired effect, usually emphasis. Inversion is a technique long used in poetry, although most modern poets shun it as too artificial. For examples of inversion, see Shakespeare's "That Time of Year" (Sonnet 73). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational. See periodic sentence. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name," metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. A news release that claims "the White House declared" rather than "the President declared" is using metonymy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase of clause that cannot stand alone. For example: "Ecstatic with my AP scores, I let out a loud shout of joy!" The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. See loose sentence. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A type of development in writing that stresses how a sequence of steps produces a certain effect. For instance, explaining to the reader all of the steps involved in balancing a checkbook would be a process essay. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A question posed with no expectation of receiving an answer. This device is often
used in public speaking in order to launch or further discussion: "Do you know what one of the
greatest pains is? One of the greatest pains in human nature is the pain of a new idea." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| synecdoche (suh-NEK-duh-kee) – a part of something used to refer to the whole—for example, "50 head of cattle" referring to 50 complete animals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The order of words in a sentence and their relationships to each other. Good syntax requires correct grammar as well as effective sentence patters, including unity, coherence, and emphasis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Words, phrases, sentences, or even paragraphs that indicate connections between the writer’s ideas. These transitions provide landmarks to guide the reader from one idea to the next so that the reader will not get lost. The following are some standard transitional devices:
Time: soon, immediately, afterward, later, meanwhile, in the meantime
Place: nearby, on the opposite side, further back, beyond
Result: as a result, therefore, thus, as a consequence
Comparison: similarly, likewise, also
Contrast: on the other hand, in contrast, nevertheless, by, yet, otherwise
Addition: furthermore, moreover, in addition, and, first, second, third, finally
Example: for example, for instance, to illustrate, as a matter of fact, on the whole, in other words |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The characteristic of having all parts contribute to the overall effect. In writing, an essay or paragraph is described as having unity when all sentences develop one idea. The worst enemy of unity is irrelevant material. A good rule is to delete all sentences that do not advance or prove the thesis (in an essay) or the topic sentence (in a paragraph). |
|
|
