Term
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Definition
| Not empirically verifiable. Some abstract ideas are: human nature, the meaning of human life, and the existence of God. See Also: concrete |
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Definition
| The purpose, or point of view. See Also: purpose |
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| An extended metaphor in which specific people, things, or events represent abstract ideas. Allegories tell a story and make abstract arguments through the characters and actions in the story. A rhetorical effect used beyond the sentence level. See Also: metaphor, symbolism |
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Definition
| An unclear or indefinite expression, meaning, essay, etc. |
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Definition
| Explaining something unfamiliar by likening it to something familiar. A rhetorical effect used at the word level. See Also: figurative language |
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Definition
| This noun form of close reading is also known as analytical writing. See Also: argument, evidence, claim, and thesis statement |
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Definition
| A short account of a funny, interesting, or pertinent incident. Anecdotes are common in personal essays as relays for thoughts and feelings on a subject. They can also be used as evidence in argumentative writing. |
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| The antagonist is the central opponent of the main character, or protagonist. It could be another character, a force, or a collection of forces that produce conflict with the protagonist. A literary device. See Also: protagonist |
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Definition
| This is repetition of the same grammatical forms with the use of opposing or contrasting ideas. |
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Definition
| authority, emotion, logic |
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Definition
| To state an opinion and support it. A specific, original idea that makes some focused, relevant statement about your subject matter. An appeal to logic. See Also: analytical writing, claim, evidence, thesis statement |
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Definition
| Something that is supposed or implied to be true. An assumption is based on implicit, or implied, statements. |
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Definition
| The person or people whom the writing is for. The one(s) listening. One of three elements of the system of language. |
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| A competition by political candidates for public office. |
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Term
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Definition
| A body of established standards, rules, and principles. An authoritative list of books or other works in any field that are supposed to be the "best" works of that field. These are seen as the "masterpieces" of "high culture" or "high art." |
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| A case study examines the context surrounding an institution, location, person, or event at a particular time in history. It sheds light on a broader historical theory or argument. It is a common form of history writing. See Also: context |
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Term
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Definition
| Categorical organization presents events grouped under larger thematic ideas. See Also: chronological organization |
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Term
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Definition
| The actor(s) who perform the action of the plot. They make things happen or produce effects. Most often characters are people, though this isn't always the case. See Also: characterization |
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Term
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Definition
| Characterization is the portrayal or description of characters in fiction or in a biography or autobiography. It is literary device. See Also: character |
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Term
| chronological organization |
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Definition
| Chronological organization presents the events in the order they occurred. A description that gives only facts and dates is a chronology, not a history. See Also: categorical organization |
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Term
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Definition
| A key part of an argument that states the truth of something, often by providing evidence. |
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Term
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Definition
| A culture stores events that represent its cultural values in its collective memory. Each collective memory has helped shape our nation and national attitudes. See Also: historical record |
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Term
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Definition
| Empirically verifiable. Based in a specific measurable reality. See Also: abstract |
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Term
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Definition
| Context refers to the circumstances surrounding a historical event. The relationship between an event and its context is reciprocal. Setting up a context in your essay gives your analysis relevance. See Also: situate, case study |
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Term
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Definition
| The rules that govern the proper use of written language; sentence structure and word choice rules. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ideas, actions, or events that a community, or culture, holds as important, or values. |
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Term
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Definition
| There are many definitions of culture. Some see it as high art or masterpieces, while cultural critics define culture as the way specific groups of people live at specifics times. The word culture can refer to everything from art and entertainment to social interactions and beliefs. Culture can include works of art, entertainment, and social interactions. Cultural critics think of culture as something we live with every day. Culture refers to how specific groups of people live their lives at specific times. In this way of looking at things, culture includes experiences at home, at work, at school, and in our free time. It also includes institutions, (such as schools or government), patterns of behavior, systems of belief, and popular entertainment. Thus, culture isn't completely external; it's part of who we are. It shapes our identities, and we participate in shaping it through our contributions and actions at school, work, home, and at play. |
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Term
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Definition
| Deductive arguments move from general statements to specific statements. A rhetorical effect used beyond the sentence level. Can be found in philosophical thinking and writing. See Also: inductive |
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Term
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Definition
| The main task of cultural criticism is to defamiliarize the everyday aspects of our culture. Cultural critics look at commonplace aspects of life and try to unpack their hidden assumptions. |
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Term
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Definition
| The force, or power that brings the decision-making and power-weilding to the people. |
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Term
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Definition
| Empiricism is the view that sensory experience is the only source of knowledge. See Also: Rationalism |
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Term
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Definition
| First, essays are relatively short. Second, they discuss a specific topic or argue a particular point of view. Third, they present one person's point of view on a topic, rather than a complete or definitive account. The essay continues to be the primary means by which writers who want to address a mass audience can get their message across. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ethics is a branch of philosophy that argues about the way people should behave. Philosophy often takes its conclusions about the world and turns them into conclusions about the way people should deal with that world. |
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Term
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Definition
| The implied character, or persona, of the author as perceived by the reader. An important part of persuasive writing. In scientific writing, ethos refers to authority of the person making the argument. See Also: scientific authority |
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Term
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Definition
| An inoffensive expression used in place of one whose more direct or graphic meaning might be considered offensive, harsh, or unpleasant. A rhetorical effect used at the word level. |
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Term
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Definition
| Existentialists argued that life in and of itself had no meaning. Therefore, they argued, people should create a meaning for their own lives, and live by it. Sartre and Nietzche were existentialists. |
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Term
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Definition
| Verifiable fact. See Also: analytical writing, claim, argument, thesis statement |
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Term
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Definition
| A detailed explanation or interpretation of the meaning of something |
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Term
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Definition
| The first part of the plot which introduces characters, setting, time, and situation. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of writing that presents or explains something to the audience. |
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Term
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Definition
| Patterns in the arrangement of words and thought that work by comparison and go beyond literal imagery. Language that relies on imagistic devises such as metaphor and simile. See Also: figures of speech |
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Term
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Definition
| Metaphor, simile, and other imagistic devices are known as figures of speech. See Also: figurative language |
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Term
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Definition
| Formality in writing is a convention, or rule. Formal writing discards common conversational tools such as sentence fragments, contractions, and shared vocabulary in an attempt to be more exactly understood by a wider audience. |
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Term
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Definition
| Francis Bacon used the essay form to further what he called, "the advancement of knowledge." Within essays he explored the possibilities of human knowledge. His essays led him to develop the Scientific Method, which established the field of science as we know it today. In his essays we can see the first seeds of what we now know as the field of "science." Because of his influence, people interested in exploring and documenting the natural world began to publish their writings. And, like Bacon, many of them used the essay to share their observations, ideas, and theories. Francis Bacon was a contemporary of Montaigne. See Also: scientific method |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of creating general conclusions or assumptions from a group of detailed facts or observations. |
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Term
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Definition
| A category of writing. A writing style, or a distinctive literature type. |
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Term
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Definition
| Johanes Gutenberg was a German printer who invented the moveable-type printing press in the 15th century. |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of upper class culture. Whether something qualifies as high culture depends on judgments about what a "masterpiece" is, or what may be considered the "best" a culture has to offer. See Also: low culture |
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Term
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Definition
| A stance, or viewpoint, on a past event. See Also: historical fact |
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Term
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Definition
| The events of the past that led to an event in the past or the present. See Also: historical consequence |
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Term
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Definition
| An outcome of a historical event. See Also: historical cause |
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Term
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Definition
| The objective facts of a past event. It answers the question, "What happened." See Also: historical argument |
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Term
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Definition
| The historical record serves as the collective memory of a culture. See Also: collective memory |
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Term
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Definition
| A historical transition essay analyzes social trends across time, or how economic and cultural realities change from one point in history to another. It is a common form of history writing. |
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Term
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Definition
| Historiography literally means the writing of history. Historiography is the analysis of different versions of history. |
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Term
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Definition
| Sensory information and its acquisition, interpretation and selection by a human. |
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Term
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Definition
| The use of exaggeration or over-statement to add emphasis or humor or to heighten emotional effects. It is a word level rhetorical effect. See Also: overstatement, understatement |
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Term
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Definition
| Hypertext allows the reader, and not the writer, to choose the organization of the essay. At the click of a mouse, readers can move from one place in an essay to another, thus creating their own experience of the text. |
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Term
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Definition
| In Iambic meter stressed syllables alternate with unstressed syllables, for example: "He ate and drank the precious words." See Also: rhythm |
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Term
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Definition
| The reality which consists of abstract ideas and forms. See Also: Material world, Plato |
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Term
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Definition
| Imagery asks the reader to create associations between the words on the page and his or her experience. Words are used to trigger mental pictures in the reader. |
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Term
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Definition
| A style of poetry that uses free verse, common speech patterns, and concrete images to create pictures in the reader's mind. |
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Term
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Definition
| The speech given by the president when (s)he is being formally given the office. |
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Term
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Definition
| Scientific writing most often uses induction, which is the process of moving from specific examples to a general theorem. See Also: inductive |
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Term
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Definition
| Arguing from example. It is a rhetorical effect used beyond the sentence level. Inductive reasoning is a form of logic where a general conclusion is reached from specific details. It is fundamental to scientific thinking and writing. It is also one of the key characteristics used in philosophical thinking. See Also: deductive |
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Term
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Definition
| Writing in a conversational, or colloquial, manner. Sometimes accomplished by using "I" and "you," or by using jargon or clichés. |
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Term
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Definition
| Combining, or drawing from, two or more separate fields of study. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of restating, or explaining something. See Also: perspective, subjective |
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Term
| irony: verbal, dramatic, situational |
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Definition
| Saying one thing but meaning another. Irony depends for its effect on the audience's background knowledge of the contradiction asserted by the ironic statement. Irony is a rhetorical effect used at the word level. See Also: satire, rhetorical device |
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Term
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Definition
| John Fiske insisted that audiences aren't just passive viewers of media, but actually make their own meanings when they view television, newspapers, and film. |
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Term
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Definition
| Logos refers to the actual information presented in an argument and the structure in which it's organized. Logos refers to the logical content of the argument. A part of persuasive writing. See Also: ethos, pathos |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of non-mainstream culture. Popular music, TV shows and movies are examples of what is called "low culture," "low art," or popular culture. Whether something qualifies as low culture depends on judgments about the worth of the contribution to mainstream society and the different financial and fringe cultures. See Also: high culture |
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Term
| mainstream American value |
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Definition
| In the U.S., we're all part of the larger American culture in some way. This is what cultural critics call mainstream or dominant culture. We're all influenced by its values, whether we individually agree with all of them or not. Mainstream American values include the importance of individual success, hard work, romantic love, and family. Also called dominant culture. |
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Term
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Definition
| In the 1960's, a Canadian professor of English and Philosophy, Marshall McLuhan initiated an academic argument about the significance of the media. This gave rise to media studies, a field that focuses on analyzing the effects of media on society. McLuhan claimed that media changes the environment we live in, and that all media are extensions of human senses. His most famous quote, "The medium is the message" made him one of the best-known social commentators of his time. |
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Term
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Definition
| Media studies is a field that focuses on analyzing the effects of media on society. McLuhan claimed that media changes the environment we live in, and that all media are extensions of human senses. |
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Term
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Definition
| The word mediate is closely related to the word medium; it means acting as a go-between or interceding between people or things. Newspapers, radio, television, and other media act as a go-between to communicate events or information to us, the audience. See Also: medium |
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Term
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Definition
| Medium refers to the material that something is created from or the means by which something is conveyed or transmitted. As an artist, your medium might be oil paint, or it might be clay or film. Medium is the singular of media. See Also: mediate |
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Term
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Definition
| Thinking about your own thinking. Keeping track of how you're responding to what you're reading. |
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Term
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Definition
| In a metaphor the characteristics of one thing are applied to another. Metaphors never use the words "like" or "as." A rhetorical effect used at the word level. See Also: rhetorical device, simile |
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Term
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Definition
| Meter adds to the musical quality of poetry by giving it a beat. It arranges the words in time. It also makes poems easier to memorize. Parallelism is a metrical devise. See Also: rhythm |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of symbolism that refers to the use of a concrete word to refer to an abstract idea. Substitution of one thing for another by the transfer of name. It is a rhetorical effect used at the word level. |
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Term
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Definition
| The "inventor" of the personal and reflective essay, 16th century Montaigne published a collection of his short writings in 1580. Montaigne's essays have a loose structure and address a variety of topics. |
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Term
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Definition
A story or account of a sequence of events. See Also: narrator |
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Term
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Definition
| Someone who is relating a sequence of events. Sometimes the narrator may hold views similar to those of the author, but this isn't always the case. See Also: narrative |
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Term
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Definition
| One of three types of third-person narration. The objective narrator sees into none of the character's minds. Nonbiased or neutral. See Also: subjective |
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Term
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Definition
| Commentary about politics. |
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Term
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Definition
| The structure and logical placement of content in your text, thesis, argument, or evidence. See Also: analytical writing, transition |
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Term
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Definition
| A union of words that appear contradictory but can be seen as true when considering the full range of meanings implied by the words. It is a rhetorical effect used at the word level. See Also: juxtaposition, contradiction, oxymoron |
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Term
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Definition
| Repetition of the same grammatical forms. It can be repetition of a part of speech, such as a noun, verb, adjective or adverb, or repetition of a larger grammatical unit such as a phrase or clause. See Also: anaphora, rhetorical device |
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Term
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Definition
| The imitation of a particular style of writing. Often the content or ideas are typically not expressed in that style. Many parodies are humorous or satirical. A rhetorical effect used beyond the sentence level. |
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Term
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Definition
| Pathos refers to the audience's anticipated emotional reaction. A part of persuasive writing. See Also: ethos, logos |
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Term
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Definition
| Images created to evoke feelings of love for ones country. |
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Term
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Definition
| A voice or character who represents the writer in a text. Writers of academic arguments must consciously build their personas, whereas personal writers attempt to accurately give voice to their own ideas, opinions, and experiences. See Also: ethos |
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Term
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Definition
| The attribution of human qualities to an abstract idea, animal, or inanimate object. It is a rhetorical effect used at the word level. See Also: metaphor, simile |
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Term
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Definition
| Point of view. When writers document an event, or events in the life of a certain person, they write from a particular perspective. Even the matter of deciding to write a history about something in the first place is a matter of perspective. Just as with artists, the perspective of history writers, that is, their beliefs and values, determines what goes into, and what is left out of, a history, biography, or autobiography. See Also: point of view |
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Term
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Definition
| Persuasion has three elements of communication: logos, ethos, and pathos. Persuasive writing relies largely on the style in which the information is presented and less on the information itself. You are persuasive if you accomplish your writing goal by using psychological appeals, rather than logical appeals. |
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Term
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Definition
| Philosophy refers to the love, study, and pursuit of wisdom. It is different from science in that it deals with the abstract, rather than the concrete. One of the key concepts in philosophical thinking is the distinction between appearance and reality. |
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Term
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Definition
| Plato was an ancient Greek philosopher and one of the most influential figures in Western philosophy. He called the world of ideas "forms." He believed the world of forms was composed of abstract qualities that existed independently of the material world. Even if no one is being "good," the concept of "goodness" still exists in the greater, or "ideal," reality. |
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Term
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Definition
| Plot is the arrangement of relevant or important events in a story. Plot is what happens to the characters. It is a literary device. See Also: plot development |
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Term
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Definition
| Plot development is the creation of a problem and a solution. There will be an exposition, rising action, and climax. It is a literary device. See Also: plot |
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Term
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Definition
| Point of view refers to the perspective, values, attitudes, and biases of the narrator. See Also: Perspective |
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Term
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Definition
| A political cartoon judges and mocks in order to critique current policies or practices. |
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Term
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Definition
| Any piece of writing that has a position on some political or social issue is political writing. |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of working class, or middle class culture and sub cultures. Popular music, such as rap music, or TV shows are artifacts of popular culture. Art and entertainment that are financially within reach and desired by the majority of the people are generally considered popular culture. |
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Term
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Definition
| Positivism is the scientific approach to history. The concept that history should seek out the truth about past events emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when scholars began to view history as a scientific field of study. See Also: objective |
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Term
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Definition
| Primary sources are original documents and texts from the period. Depending on the type of history you're writing, primary sources can also include lyrics, television shows and films, radio transcripts, paintings, and oral history. See Also: secondary source |
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Term
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Definition
| The main character of the story. A literary device. See Also: antagonist |
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Term
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Definition
| The goal, or the reason one is motivated. |
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Term
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Definition
| Rationalism is the view that reason and logic are the best means to present arguments and draw conclusions. See Also: Empiricism |
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Term
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Definition
| An examination, in writing, of one's self, thoughts, feelings, and dreams, or even one's understanding of an idea or concept. More often called personal writing. |
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Term
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Definition
| Like other branches of philosophy, religious writing doesn't deal with empirically verifiable facts. Religious writing addresses a world that exists outside of human perception (or, some would maintain, outside the perception of most humans). |
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Term
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Definition
| A rhetorical device which uses the repeating of a word or a phrase, either exactly or in grammatical form, at the sentence level. See Also: rhetorical device |
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Term
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Definition
| The use of language to achieve desired effects on an audience. |
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Term
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Definition
| The techniques and strategies we use to persuade someone to do something or to feel a certain way. They can be found at the word level, the sentence level, or beyond the sentence level. See Also: repetition, parallelism, metaphor |
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Term
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Definition
| Rhyme is the repetition of the last stressed vowel and the consonants that follow the vowel. Rhymes are often used to make poems and advertising more memorable. See Also: rhyme scheme |
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Term
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Definition
| The pattern of rhymes in a poem is called the rhyme scheme. We talk about the rhyme scheme by assigning a letter to each ending word sound. |
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Term
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Definition
| Rhythm depends on the establishment of a pattern and its return. It echoes breathing and heartbeats. In a poem, rhythm has two main effects. It gives pleasure, and it reveals the speaker. Rhythm helps determine a poem's mood and, along with other elements, the poem's meaning. See Also: meter |
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Term
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Definition
| Sacred texts are the writings on which religions base themselves. These texts don't use hard evidence to prove their arguments because they and their audience believe that the ideas are divinely inspired. Sacred writing often uses poetic and rhetorical techniques like parallelism and metaphor to emphasize and illustrate abstract concepts. |
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Term
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Definition
| A complex strategy to diminish or ridicule a subject, often through the use of exaggeration. It is a rhetorical effect used beyond the sentence level. |
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Term
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Definition
| Famous scholars, scientists who's theories are accepted by most as true, and scientists who have in-depth knowledge of a subject, are all scientific authorities. Scientific writing relies on the authority of the author and the authorities cited for establishing credibility. See Also: ethos |
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Term
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Definition
| Scientific knowledge is built in stages, with scientist after scientist adding to the discoveries of their colleagues and predecessors. Through history many scholars have built upon each others' research. As a result, a "body of human knowledge" has developed. That body of human knowledge, together with the rules for adding to it and talking about it, are known as "science." |
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Term
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Definition
| The specific means and methods by which knowledge can be advanced. Francis Bacon developed the Scientific Method, which established the field of science as we know it today. |
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Term
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Definition
| Scientific writing began in the 18th century during the Enlightenment and is founded on mainly two ideas: Empiricism and rathionalism. It avoids pathos, or emotion, and relies instead on logos (or logic) and ethos (authority). |
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Term
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Definition
| Secondary sources are scholars' interpretations of history. Remember that secondary sources are one person's interpretation of history, and therefore, they're open to argument. See Also: primary source |
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Term
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Definition
| The time and place of a story. |
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Term
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Definition
| A simile compares two different ideas or things. It can be recognized by the use of the words "like" or "as" and can be found at the word level. See Also: metaphor, rhetorical device |
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Term
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Definition
| Situating the media text is trying to determine the target audience and intended purpose of the content you're writing about. See Also: context |
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Term
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Definition
| A group of people with a common set of ideals who try to achieve the same goals together. |
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Term
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Definition
| An ancient Greek philosopher and one of the most inflencial figures in Western philosophy. He was interested in what lay beyond the reach of human perception. Socrates was Plato's teacher. |
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Term
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Definition
| One who speaks in a conversation, or the voice of narration in a written text. The physical presence of the listener gives the speaker an advantage over the writer because it provides immediate feedback. The speaker can tell if the listener understands and agrees, or whether more argument or explanation is necessary. Speakers often don't have to be as explicit about their assumptions as do writers. |
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Term
| State-of-the-Union address |
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Definition
| A yearly speech given to Congress by the president which outlines the condition and direction of the United States of America, as seen by his/her administration. |
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Term
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Definition
| A stressed syllable is louder, or more accented, than an unstressed syllable. See Also: rhythm |
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Term
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Definition
| A smaller culture within the larger culture. For example, we may belong to religious groups, or groups based on race, economic status, gender, ethnicity, or sexual orientation, or interests. Each culture has its own set of rules for appropriate behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| An author's beliefs and biases make any biography or autobiography a subjective account. The perspective of an author plays a role in writing history. The idea that history is less of a science and more of an art, and the historian has a creative role. See Also: objective |
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Term
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Definition
| A three-part deduction that starts with a generalization and ends with a specific conclusion. See Also: generalization |
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Term
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Definition
| A symbol is a person, object, or event that suggests more than its literal meaning. |
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Term
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Definition
| The use of concrete objects that "stand for" or suggest a more abstract idea. Two types of symbol are metonymy and synecdoche. It is a rhetorical effect used at the word level. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of symbolism that uses a part of an object or idea to stand for, or "symbolize," the whole, or a whole to symbolize a part. It is a rhetorical effect used at the word level. See Also: metaphor |
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Term
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Definition
| An element of tone that refers to the grammatical structure of your writing. Like diction, it can be formal or informal. |
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Term
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Definition
| The intended audience for the content. |
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Term
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Definition
| The main body of writing, as distinguished from notes, appendixes, and so on. |
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Term
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Definition
| Theme is the central idea or meaning of a story. All the elements of fiction work together to help produce the theme. |
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Term
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Definition
| Explains the purpose, or main idea, of a piece of writing. It tells the reader the topic of the essay, as well as what the point about that topic will be. See Also: argument, analytical writing |
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Term
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Definition
| The personality and level of formality your readers hear when they read your essay. It is important for establishing ethos or persona. Diction and syntax are two important elements of tone. Tone is a rhetorical element of news stories that can make hidden assumptions clearer. A story's tone reflects the author's attitudes toward the people, places, and events in the story. See Also: formal, informal, colloquial |
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Term
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Definition
| A change, or passage, from one subject, or point in your essay, to another. |
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Term
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Definition
| Playing down the magnitude or effect of a statement with the intention to draw attention to some unstated point. A rhetorical effect used at the word level. See Also: overstatement, rhetorical device |
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Term
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Definition
| Unstressed syllables are softer, or unaccented, when compared to a stressed syllable. See Also: rhythm |
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Term
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Definition
| An analytical or mental position from which supporting points or evidence are viewed. See Also: point of view |
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Term
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Definition
| The style or manner of expression found in a character in a book or of an author. See Also: narrator |
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Term
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Definition
| A grammatical convention that orders the words on a page. For example, it's correct to write "We walked home," but incorrect to write "We home walked." |
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