make some enzymes active

non-protein component

Ions or coenzymes

Ex. copper,zinc

organic molecules that act as cofactors

vitamins

Coenzyme A- necessary for cellular respiration

•First described by Francis Crick

•Information only flows from

DNA → RNA → protein

•Transcription = DNA → RNA

•Translation = RNA → protein

(carries code from DNA to ribosome)

(brings amino acids to ribosome)

Anabolism-larger molecules are made from smaller; requires energy; provides the materials needed for cellular growth and repair; Type: Dehydration synthesis

Catabolism-larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones; release energy; Type: Hydrolysis

- Factors that alter an enzyme’s structure and function

Heat

Radiation

 Electricity

 Chemicals

 Changes in pH

Glycosis

Citric Acid Cycle (Kreb's Cycle)

Electron Transport Chain

Glycolysis: Inputs- Outputs

Glucose

(C6H12O6)- 2 Pyruvates

NAD- NADH

2ADP-+2 ATP( net gain)

Preparatoy Reaction: Inputs-Outputs

2 Pyruvates- Acetyl

NAD 2- NAD(net gain) CO2

Citric Acid Cycle- Inputs- Outputs

Acetyl Coil- CO2

NAD-NADH

FAD-FADH

2ADP-2ATP

Electron Transport Chain- Inputs-Outputs

Reactants- oxygen and glucose

Products- carbon dioxide, water, and ATP

DNA- made of 2 strands of nucleotides which spiral (double helix); antiparallel; major and minor groove; DNA wrapped around histones forms chromosomes

RNA- single strand of nucleotides; shorther than DNA

DNA- A with T (or U in RNA)

C with G

Initation- replication begins

Elongation- new strands of DNA are synthesized by DNA polymerase

Termination- replication terminated

Translation: Converting mRNA- a specific sequence of amino acids(polypeptide which becomes a protein); Ribosomes read the mRNA and converts it into protein(flesh and blood)

     Transcription:  DNA-RNA

> 106ᵒF

•Symptoms: dizziness, nausea, headache, rapid pulse

Symptoms: mental confusion, lethargy, loss of reflexes, major organ shutdown

Functions and structures of the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layers

Epidermis: most superficial layer; contains keratinocyte and melanocyte; made up of stratified squamous epilthelium and lacks blood vessels; Functions: protects againist water loss, mechanical injury,chemicals, and microorganism

  Dermis: Deeper of the 2 skin layers, contain all major tissue types plus sudoriferous(sweat) glands, sebaceous(oil) glands, hair follicles and arrector pili muscles, (collagen, elastic, and nerve fibers), and blood vessels; Functions: binds the epidermis to the subcutaneous tissue 

 Subcutaneous(hypodermis): Composed of adipose(fat) and loose connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves; Functions: storage in adipose tissue, cushions and insulates unerlying structures

5 layers of epidermis

Stratum corneum (dead, keratinized cells)

Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin – palms, soles)

Stratum granulosum

Stratum spinosum

Stratum basale (mitotic layer)

Factors determining epidermal color (genetics, physiological, environmental)

Genetics: Varyign amounts of melanin, Varying size of melanin granules, and Albinos lack melanin

Physiological: Dilation of dermal blood vessels, Constriction of dermal blood vessels, Accumulation of carotene, and Jaundice

Environmental: Sunlight, UV ligh from sunlamps, and X-rays

Different types of skin cancer

Cutaneous carcinoma – cancer from skin cells

Cutaneous melanoma – cancer from melanocytes

Malignant melanoma – accounts for 80% of skin cancer deaths but only 4% of skin cancer occurances

Structure of the Dermis 1) Papillary layer 2) Reticular layer

Papillary- Areolar tissue; thin; superficial; dermal papillae here

Reticular- most of dermis; dense irregular connective tissue

Structure and functions of the nails, hair follicles, and the cutaneous glands (eccrine, apocrine, ceruminous, mammary)

Nails- protective coverings; has 3 plates (nail plate,nail bed, and lunala)

 Hair Follicles- present on all skin surfaces except palms, soles of the feet, lips, nipples, and parts of the external reproductive organs; epidermal cells;tube-like depression;extends into dermis; has 3 parts( hair bulb, root, and shaft)

Pacinian- respond to heavy pressure

Meissner- sense light touch and texture

Understand the reaction of inflamed skin

Steps in the formation of a scab

consists of blood cells held together in a more or less solid mass by protein fibers secreted by fibroblasts and other cells. The scab seals the wound until more permanent repairs can be made. A scab forms over the wound, preventing further blood loss

clots and dried tissue

First- superficial,partial-thickness

Second- deep,partial-thickness(blisters)

Third- full-thickness ( Autograft, Allograft,and Various skin substitues)

Connective

Muscle

Nervous

Epithelial

Close space between cells

Located among cells that form linings

Line the digestive system

Blood vessels in the brain

Form "spot welds" between cells 

 Located among outer skin cells

Tubular channels between cells

Located in cardiac muscle cells

General Characteristics

Covers organs and body surface; Lines cavities; Hollow organs

Have a free surface on one side and basement membrane on other; Non-living, connects epithelial to connective

Usually lack blood vessels; Cells readily divide; Cells are tightly packed

Classified by cell shape and number of cell layers (squamous-flat, cubiodal-cubeshaped,columnar-tall)

General characteristics: Most abundant tissue type

Functions: 

Bind structures, Provide support and protection

 Store fat, serves as frameworks, fill spaces 

Produce blood cells, Protect against infections,Help repair tissue damage 

 Have varying degrees of vascularity;Less dense than epithelial;Have an extracellular matrix made of protein fibers and ground substance

Fibroblasts:Fixed cell, most common cell, large( star-shaped), produce fibers

Macrophages: Wandering cell, phagocytic, important in immunity and prevention of infection

Mast Cells: Fixed cell, usually near blood vessels, release heparin and histamine 

Collagenous: Thick, composed of collagen, great tensile strength, hold structures together, appear white in abundance, dense connective tissue

Elastic: Bundles of micofibrils embedded in elastin, fibers branch, elastic, appear yellow in abundance, common in areas subjected to stretching

Reticular: Very thin collagenous fibers, highly branched, form delicate supportive networks