role of music

- was a sign of class and wealth

- wealthy class supported and paid for it

salons

*meeting places like dinner parties and drawing rooms where intellectual ideas and gossip (etc) were discussed*

- they were often used as a meeting place to discuss new ideas of the Enlightenment 

philosophes

*enlightened intellectuals*

- enlightened/modernized arts and sciences

- wanted to reform behavior

- were very liveral

- big critics of everything - challenged everything

Jean Jacques Rousseau

a. French philosopher 

b. wrote The Social Contract 

    - "Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains"

    - G-d created all men equal so G-d did not create Society, the social hierarchy - 

     - Society is a creation of Man - so it can be unmade

     - argued for there to be some sort of social contract (an exchange of rights and freedoms) - everyone could live happily

Denis Diderot

- compiled and edited the encyclopedia

   a. attempted to summarize all acquired knowledge

   b. was supposed to dispel superstition

Voltaire

- French Enlightenment writer

- born part of the Bourgeois 

- real name = John Francois Marie Arouet

- was educated by Jesuits but was constantly attacking the Catholic Church

   a. caused his stay in the Bastille and exile from France where he spent 2 years writing his book

- wrote Candide and Philosophical Letters concerning the English Nation

Philosophical Letters concerning the English Nation

- written by Voltaire

- demonstrated the superiority of the British in comparison to the French

Candide

- written by Voltaire

- makes fun of ivory tower optimists

- "We must cultivate our own garden"

    a. don't rely on the Church or the state to dictate your life

- was influenced by the Lisbon earthquake in which thousands of innocents died

David Hume

- Scottish philosopher

- wrote A Treatise of Human Nature

   a. Skepticism (in terms of sense perception)

       - we don't learn from experience 

       - there is no such thing as reason

       - everything is an "impression" and "instinct"

       - conclusions of sense perception are to be distrusted

- An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding

Baron de Montesquieu

- French philosopher

- wrote The Spirit of the Laws

   a. greatly influenced Catherine the Great

   b. greatly influenced the framers for the US constitution

- wrote Persian Letters

   a. satire on French society and govt

deism

*acceptance of G-d on rational grounds only*

- nature had its own laws and ran w/o divine intervention

- epicureanism = G-d created the world and left it to run itself

religious views of the Enlightenment

- attacked established instututions

   a. the Church

Hedonism of John Locke

- good = pleasure

- bad = pain

- If personal good = pleasure, social good = happiness. 

- greatest moral good = pursuit of the greatest good for the greatest number (utilitarianism)

Cesare Beccaria

A. Background/Achievements

    1. Italian philosopher

    2. wrote On Crimes and Punishments 

        a. condemned torture and the death penalty

        b. advocated reform of the criminal law system  

            - criminal justice should conform to rational principles

C. Policies

    1. appealed for rationality in law

    2. utilitarian principle

Marquis de Condorcet

- French philosopher

- wrote Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind 

- advocated a liberal economy, free and equal public education, equal rights for women and other races, constitutionalism 

legal reforms inspired by the Enlightenment in Prussia

- enforcement of law was made uniform throughout the realm

    a. to prevent judicial corruption

    b. to produce a single Prussian law code

legal reforms inspired by the Enlightenment in Russia

- Catherine the Great's reforms 

    a. attempted to abolish torture 

    b. introduced the Beccarian Principle 

         ("Accused is innocent until proven guilty")

legal reforms inspired by the Enlightenment in Austria

- courts were centralized

- laws were codified

- torture and capital punishment were abolished

state involvement in education

- religious figures/institutions had been the most influential educators and now the Enlightenment was attacking religion

- created a void that had to be filled by the state

Edict of Toleration

(1781)

- granted religious liberty to Protestants and Jews

- issued by Joseph II of Austria

   a. believed the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in France = economic disaster for France

   b. encourage religious toleration = encourage economic progress

physiocrats

* economists who believed that the wealth of nations derives solely from the value of land agriculture/development *

- agricultural activity should take first priority in state reforms

- taxation should be based on land

- laissez faire

   a. govt should cease to interfere with private economic activity

   b. ppl work harder to benefit themselves

distinguishing factors of European nobility

1. legal rights

2. landowners

3. wealth

4. legislative power 

    - ability to be in the govt and hold office

entailment

A. Purpose

    1. Restricted the breaking up of a land estate through sale or inheritance

   - nobility kept land in their class

differences in aristocratic life

Britain vs. Spain

A. Britain 

    - anyone who can live like a gentlemen is accounted as one

    (this was done to dilute power of the nobles)

B. Spain

    - living on country estates is an embarrassment

      (associate with manuel labor)

The Grand Tour

*traditional travel of Europe by mainly upper class European young men of means*

purposes of the Grand Tour

1. substitute for formal education
2. means of introducing different European aristocracies to each other
3. a means of communicating taste and fashion among the different aristocracies 

bourgeoisie 

*middle class*

(upper class under capitalism)

- dwelled in towns (strongest where towns are strongest)

- persecuted by everyone

   a. despised from above (felt threatened)

   b. envied from below

- approach to earning/spending money = industrious, frugal, sober

bourgeoisie home values

a. home = social centers for kin/neighbors 

b. marriages = now done for companionship, not just for economic advance (romantic love = newly valued)

c. children = valued much more

    - futures dominated family concern

    - childhood = separate stage of life

    - education = parents' most important responsibility  

occupations of the bourgeoisie

a. commerce

    - trade, exchange, service

b. finance

    - accumulated or preserve capital

    - participation in govt credit markets 

       (bought state bonds and lived off the interest)

c. professions which provide services to the rich

bourgeoisie effect on development of culture

a. London - theatre district rose

b. Paris - Voltaire's plays performed before packed houses 

c. Venice - more than 1200 operas produced in the 18th c.

d. Hamburg - public concerts

18th century women's literature

- mostly fanciful fictional romances

- instruction on daily life

   a. how to organize domestic life

   b. how to navigate polite society

- moral instruction

18th century children

- upbringing not as severe

- much less beating

- futures dominated familial concern

- child's education = one of the parents' most important of all responsibilities

- women bearing fewer children

   a. sanitation improving = reduces danger/disablement of childbirth, gives leisure time to pursue domestic tasks

"rule of thumb"

- established that a husband may beat his wife with a stick but only if the stick is no thicker than a man's thumb

significance of introduction of corridors and hallways

- designed to afford the couple more privacy from children, servants, and guests

significance of toy stores

- showed that children were no longer raised so harshly 

   (parents now willing to spend money on playthings)

- showed that childhood was actually a stage in life

   (children are now "children", not just weaker, under-developed adults)

John Newberry

- wrote some of the first children's books 

decline of use of wet-nurses among upper class

- mothers wanted to dote on their children themselves

- shows difference/change of child upbringing

domestic life for the middle/lower classes in the 18th c.

- hasn't changed much 

- didn't have money to pay for toys or reading material for children

- didn't have enough money for women to stop working to lead a singularly domestic life

- didn't have a enough time to raise and dote on children = still kept wet nurses

- wives/children still beaten

- didn't agree with ideas like individuality and innocence of children

worst famine in European history

(1696-1697)

- in Finland

- almost 1/3 of the population died

Thomas Malthus

A. Background = British scholar

B. theory of population growth 

   1. growth of 1 or 2 generations is checked by a crisis that significantly reduces population

       - positive checks = famine, plague, death, war

   2. he came up with and published his theory just as the growth spurt was about to disappear

rise in fertility

a. women married younger - increased child-bearing years

b. practice of wet nursing became more common in the working class [the masses]

c. infidelity - unmarried relationships - illegitimate children

d. fewer wars - men were home more often

decline of mortality rates

1. European warfare diminished/changed location to the colonies

   - naval warfare also changed location

     (no damages caused by war: destruction and pillaging of crops and wholesale slaughter of livestock = food shortages)

2. epidemic disease abated  

    - plague was over/quarantine eradicated the scourge of centuries

obstacles for agricultural progress

a. three field crop rotation system 

    - a lot of unfarmed land

b. concentration on subsistence cereal crops eroded land that was in production

c. common farming is only as strong as the weakest member of the community

d. few animals = little manure = uneasily regenerated soil

e. little incentive for successful individuals to plow profits back into the land

new agriculture techniques

a. consolidation of landholdings 

    - traditional crop rotations could be abandoned

b. fodder crops

    - added nutrients to soil/fed livestock

c. better grazing and winter feed

    - increased herd size

d. crossbreeding/other new husbandry tricks

    - hardier strains

implications of the potato

a. ppl could survive with less land/capital

b. ppl married younger

    - didn't need as much money to marry because could live w/ less money

c. more children

economic disincentives for agricultural improvement

a. new techniques were expensive

b. experiments that didn't work could devastate a community

    - higher taxes

c. knowledge spread slowly

    - takes a while to become profitable

Land cultivation

East vs. West

A. East - great tracts of uncultivated land remained in Russia, Prussia, and Hungary and Germany

B. West - little room for agricultural expansion

advantages of market agriculture

- allows specialization

- could respond to regional harvest failures in a way subsistence farming could not

factors which promoted market agriculture

a. upkeep of roads

b. building of canals

c. clearing of waterways

Engrosser

*the middleman who bought up the local surplus and shipped it away*

- accused of driving up prices (which he did)

- accused of creating famine (which he didn't)

prices/wages contribution poverty cycle

- prices rose

- wages fell (because of population advance)

- cost of living rose

- land is more valuable

- custom of partible inheritance (split among all children) made portions of land much smaller

- portion of family income made by labor expanded

- stronger males = more valuable

increase of female infanticide

- males = stronger than females, more valuable

(since now most ppl make money by being farmers or laborers)

responses to increased poverty

1. Emigration - most immigrated to cities

    - in places where misery was greatest, whole communities would move (like the Irish)

    - Frederick the Great got more ppl to come to Prussia by offering them land there

2. traditional domestic crafts evolved into industrial activities

(processing more raw materials at home, spinning, weaving...)

rise of the asylum

1. ppl died - orphans in hospitals

2. increased crime - prisons grew

3. increased amount of the poor 

    - went to live in hospitals

    - exploited by workhouse industrialists

       (rented them out at below market wages)

explosion of literacy across different classes

A. Causes

    1. primary education

    2. new business techniques

    3. millions of books available in editions tailored to the most modest purse

daily leisure activities for the masses

a. sporting events which pitted the inhabitants of one village against the inhabitants of another 

b. so called blood sports = brutal competitions in which animals were somehow maimed or slaughtered

c. local tavern/ale house - site of local communication and recreation

*reflects violent and brutal nature of day-to-day existance

Baroque

- dramatic/emotional

- colors = brighter than bright, darker than dark

- paintings and sculptures in Churches speak to illiterate

- Ecclesiastical