Materialism

1. the universe is composed of matter in motion

Mathematics

- calculation had to replace common sense as the basis for understanding the universe

Epicycle

- planets revolved in circles that rested on a circle around the earth

Eccentric Orbit

- sun revolved around the earth in a circle not centered around earth

Copernicus

1. Polish

2. "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres"

3. contributions to astronomy

    a. sun is the center of the universe

    b. earth is simply another planet in orbit

Tycho Brahe

1. Danish

2. contributions to astronomy

    a. discovered nova

    b. all planets but the Earth revolve around the Sun

   c. planets revolve around a fixed Earth

   d. compiled largest and most accurate mathematical tables of planetary motion yet known

Johannes Kepler

1. Danish

2. contributions to astronomy

    a. formulated laws of planetary motion

    b. planets revolve around sun in eliptical path

    c. precise mathematical  relationship between the speed with which a planet revolved and its distance from the sun

Galileo

1. Italian

2. contributions to astronomy

    a. confirmed by observation that the universe is heliocentric

    b. galaxy is nothing but a mass of innumerable stars

    c. popularization of Copernican theory

3. contributions to physics

    a. law of inertia - motion

4. tried by the Inquisition = popularized views which were considered anti-Christian

The New Science

a. inquiry into nature/environment grew from discipline of natural philosophy and nurtured by spiritual and mystical traditions

b. determination to develop systems of thought that help to understand and control environment

Neoplatonism

- philosophical writings that explain nature and composition of universe by Plato

- world is composed of ideas and forms that are hidden by the physical properties of objects

Alchemy

- use of fire in the study of metals

- an effort to find the essence of things through their purification

Astrology

- the study of the influence of the stars on human behavior

   (mathematics = use different ways of recording and calculating)

Hermetism

- belief in a universal spirit that's present in all objects and that spontaneously reveals itself

Paracelcius

1. Swiss

2. Theories

    a. Chemistry - all matter is composed of salt, sulfur, and mercury

    b. Pathology - each disease has its own cause which can be diagnosed and remedied

    c. Pharmacology -  ingestion of particular chemicals 

       (administered at astrological moments)

Robert Boyle

1. English

2. Theories

    a. Chemistry - matter consisted of little particles of all sizes and shapes 

            change in particle -> change in matter

    b. Gas Laws - formulated the relationship between volume and pressure of a gas

                     - invented air pump

Andreas Vesalius

1. Belgian

2. Contributions to anatomy

    - published first modern set of anatomical drawings

William Harvey

1. English

2. contributions to anatomy

    - heart works like a pump -> blood is pumped by heart and circulated trough entire body

Marcello Malfighi

1. Italian

2. Contribution to circulation

     - discovered capillaries using a primitive microscope

Anton van Leewenhoek

1. Dutch

2. Discoveries

    a. observed blood cells in human tissue

    b. discovered bacteria by examining plaque in his teeth 

    c. developed single lens microscope in which objects were magnified by 200

Sir Isaac Newton

1. English

2. Discoveries

    a. composition of light

    b. developed calculus

    c. built a reflecting telescope

    d. motion is the result of interaction between objects & can be mathematically calculated

3. Laws of Motion

4. Theory of Gravity

Laws of Motion

1. objects at rest or of uniform linear motion remain in such a state unless acted upon by an external force

2. charges in motion are proportional to force

3. for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

Theory of Gravity

- mathematical relationship between attraction and repulsion governs the movement of all objects

- force pulls everything toward earth

governments reaction to advancement of science

1. Support

    - science modernized and furthered commerce and the economy 

    - govt supported anything that helped the economy

French Academie des Sciences

- a learned society founded in 1666 by Louis XIV

- founded to encourage and protect French scientific spirit

- at the forefront of scientific society in the 17th and 18th centuries

- unique organization of studies

English "Royal Society"

- learned society for science founded in 1662 in England

- boasted some of the greatest minds of the age

   ex) Newton

Sir Francis Bacon

- an English philosopher/scientist 

- wrote The Advancement of Learning

    - "Scientific Method"

        - for an experiment to be valid, it has to be reproducible

Church reaction to advancement of science

1. Opposition

    - new science = heresy

       a. contradicted Church teachings

       b. wasn't under Church control

       c. ultimately caused atheism

  ex) trial and treatment of Galileo

Rene Descartes

- French philospher

- "I think, therefore I am" 

   a. you can't rely on sense perceptions

   b. looking for certainty - created a way to mathematically deduct the certainty of shapes (geometry)

- dubbed "the Father of Modern Philosophy" 

Dutch economy in the 17th century

A. commercial success = first great commercial power

        1. overbearing Spain used to rule them

            - Holland was passionately supportive of freedom

              - open to new capital, new ventures, new ideas

        2. held economic superiority until the end of the 17th century  

            - when France and England passed laws to eliminate Dutch competition = cut heavily into Dutch economy

entrepot

- place where goods were brought for storage before being exchanged

- developed by the Dutch

Bank of Amsterdam

- first bank ever

- pioneered by the Dutch in 1609

- it established a uniform rate of exchange for the various currencies traded in Amsterdam

flyboat

- designed to specifically carry bulky cargoes like grain

- developed by the Dutch

Triangular trade

*trade among three ports or regions*

  - used to be that a region had an export commodity that was required in the region from which its major imports came il 

  - triangular trade came about to rectify trade imbalances

    - deliver products to places that need it

This created a global economy.  

giro banking

* transfer banking *

- invented in Italy

- merchants in different cities did not have to transport their precious metals or endure long delays in having their accounts settled

Bank of England

- established in 1694

- overcame defaulting on bills of exchange

   1. unified currency

   2. paper currency (not metal)

  These make commerce possible. 

efficiencies that reduced the risks merchants took

1. bills of exchange

2. read newspapers - can anticipate risks

3. govt secured trade routes - pirates can't raid

4. careful packaging

5. family members as shipping clerks to make sure nothing is stolen

Spice Trade

* merchandising of spices and herbs *

- dominated by the Dutch

Calico Trade

* trade of certain desired Indian cottons *

- Dutch dominated

- England began to dominate in the middle of the 18th century 

Tea trade

- European society was obsessed with tea so this was a huge business

- dependent on Atlantic and Pacific trade

    a. Atlantic = sugar from West Indies

    b. Pacific = actual tea from China

Slave trade

- trade = brought reexported calicoes to Africa for slaves, which were brought to the West Indies for sugar, which was brought back to England

- dominated by England

- colonial production depended on the enforced labor of Africans

Dutch benefits from war with Spain

1. fought oversea (cuz land wars are too costly) and became experts at attacking Spanish silver fleets

    - built up their navy

2. massive immigration of Protestants into their provinces

    - vital skills in manufacturing 

    - large reserves of capital for investment in commerce

3. built up Holland during the war = walls to defend, roads to communicate

main Dutch trade routes

a. Baltic Trade

b. East Indian Trade

    - spices, cotton, porcelain, china

c. Atlantic/New World/New Netherlands trade

d. tobacco and sugar trade

Dutch success in 17th century

a. openness of Dutch society - religious tolerance

    - different religious groups brought different skills and knowledge 

    - extra capital

b. no real nobility = no set of values that prized land over trade

c. geography = right on the water

d. climate

e. couldn't grow their own food because of water = lack of sufficient foodstuffs

Absolutism vs. Mercantile Profits

- power and prestige were more important to rulers than profits for merchant

- merchant activities were scorned by elite and aristocracy

*Two main principles of mercantilism*

1. wealth = gold

2. fixed amount of stuff in the world

    - zero sum game

      a. one man's gain is another man's loss

      b. game = get the most stuff

Crown's interest in monopolies

a. monopolists would pay a lot for their rights

b. monopolist activities are easily monitored for tax purposes

c. monopolist grants = used to purchase support from powerful ppl

d. monopolist grants = used as rewards for favors

joint stock companies

- type of business entity

- shares in a company can now be exchanged without the breakup of the company as a whole

- share holders have an identity separate from the company

Navigation Acts

* series of laws which restricted the use of foreign shipping between England and its colonies *

a. all colonial goods had to go through England first before they could be exported to other countries

    - protected English trade/economy which skyrocketed

tariffs

* taxes imposed on goods *

a. Colbert's use for the French economy

    - people wouldn't want to pay extra money for foreign goods

    - they'd buy French goods

protectionist legislation

* legal taxes on imports to force use of domestic products * 

a. individuals suffered

    - forced to buy what's local = often inferior quality

Chiaroscuro

*areas of brightness emerging out of shadow*

- Caravagio used this a lot

- Rembrandt used this

England vs. Holland

1. England was offensive in reaction to Dutch mastery of commerce

    - Naval Wars

    - captured overseas colonies

2. William of Orange became English king

   - was already stadtholder of Holland

      - unified the countries = laid their rivalry aside

      - fought together against France

France vs. Holland

1. France was more defensive in reaction to Dutch mastery of commerce

   a. put an expensive tariff on Dutch imports 

      - wanted to be economically independent 

2. Louis XIV invaded the Netherlands 

    a. believed the Dutch were stopping him from acquiring Spanish Netherlands 

    b. revenge for the Dutch alliance to counter French tariff policy

Adam Smith

- Scottish philosopher

- wrote Wealth of Nations

- Invisible Hand

   - self interest regulates society

   - even playing field = neutralizes success of other seller

Louis XIV's goals

a. to restore the Burgundian inheritance to the French

b. to secure France's North and East borders

c. to link together several imperial cities in the duchies

War of Spanish Succession

(1702-1714)

- Someone had to succeed Carlos

- France vs. Austria (with Holland and England)

War of Spanish Succession Goals

1. France - as much as possible of the Spanish Netherlands

2. Spain - their empire to stay intact

3. England

    - prevent unification of France and Spain 

    - partition the Spanish empire so Austria got Italy and the Netherlands

4. Austria - Netherlands and Italy ceded to them

5. United Provinces - Spanish shouldn't control them again           

John Churchill

- ancestor of Wintson Churchill

- duke of Marlsborough

- commander-in-chief of the army

- added 70,000 soldiers to form a land army 

  - this with Prussian additions defeated France and Germany in the Spanish Netherlands

Treaty of Utrecht

(1713-1714)

- Austria = got Netherlands and Italy

- England = got Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Gibraltar, and Minorca

British colonial strategies in North America

- gave a lot of independence to their colonies

French colonial strategies in North America

- very controlling

- had military presence in their colonies

Seven Years War

(1756-1763)

- was about whose empire was greater

   - France vs. England

A. Cause

    1. British sent a military force to clear out the French from the Ohio River Valley