Term
| CELL THEORY (Brown, Shleiden, Schwann, Virchow, 3 parts) |
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Definition
BROWN:Scottish, observed the dark structure near cell's center = "nucleus"
SCHLEIDEN: German, observed that plants are made of cells
SCHWANN: German, observed that animals are made of cells
VIRCHOW: Cells come from other cells by cell division
1. All living things are made up of one or more cells
2. Cells are the basic untis of structure and function
3. Cells are produced only from existing cells |
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Term
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Definition
| highly organized like a factory, cell/plasma membrane separates contents of cell from outside and regulats transport, cytoplasm and cytosol are semifluid substances, ribosomes are structures for protein synthesis, chromosomes are the genetic material (DNA) |
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Term
| prokaryhotes vs. eukaryotes |
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Definition
| before nucleus, 3.5b years old, no organelles, simple circular chromosome, no nuclear membrane, Monera kingdom (paramecium and amoeba) VS. true nucleus, 1.5b years old, organelles and nucleus, many chromosomes, nuclear membrane, all other kingdoms |
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Term
| animal cell vs. plant cell |
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Definition
| lysosomes, centrioles, and flagella vs. central vacuole, tonoplast, chloroplast, cell wall, and plasomdesmata |
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Term
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Definition
| as size increases, surface becomes less efficient at getting things in and out of the cell because the volume increases faster than the surface area (lower surface to volume ratio) |
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Term
| NUCLEUS (function, nuclear envelope, nuclear lamina, chromatin vs. chromosomes, nuclelus, nuclear pore complexes) |
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Definition
| inniciates and controls most of cell's activities and houses cell's DNA / double membrane with large pores surrounding nucleus and studded with ribosomes / protein filaments along nuclear side of envelope that maintains shape and continues with ER / mess of strings vs. thickened coil of chromatin seen during division (both made of protein and DNA) / made of RNA and proteins and produces ribosomes / regulates passages of particles |
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Term
| RIBOSOME (structure, location, function) - SMALLEST + MOST NUMEROUS ORGANELLE |
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Definition
| composed of a small and large subunit of RNa and protein / both attached to rough ER (for proteins attached to membrane, inserted into organelles, or exported out of cell) OR free in cytoplasm to make proteins for use in cytosol / site of protein synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
| jell like fluid + all organelles and extracellular matrix vs. just fluid |
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Term
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Definition
| area where 2 organelles is located vs. actual organelle |
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Term
| ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM (order, ultimate product) |
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Definition
| Nuclear membrane -->rER --> lipid bilater --> sER --> enclosed in vesicles --> golgi apparatus --> lysosomes -->vacuoles --> plasma membrane / protein synthesis! |
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Term
| ER (structure, function, rough vs. smooth) |
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Definition
| interconnected, folded, continuous w/ cell membrane: membrane sacs tubes and canals / direts molecular traffic within cell like a highway and transports materials through inside of cell / studded with ribosomes for protein synthesis like glycoproteins and secretory proteins vs. no ribosomes, lipid production, glycogen breakdown, drug detox, and helps muscle contraction |
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Term
| GOLGI APPARATUS (structure, function) |
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Definition
| flattened sac of membranes piled upon each other (cis = recieving side near ER, trans = shipping side that releases vesicles) / modifies proteins by using special enzymes to attach carbs and lipits to them, collects, packages, and labels proteins prior to export and secretion |
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Term
| LYSOSOMES(structure and function) |
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Definition
| small membrane-bound vesicles of hydrolytic enzymes formed in Golgi, stains dark and found mostly in animal cells / breakdown and digest worn, damaged, ro foreign materials, recycles used parts, programms cell destruction of cells that are no longer useful (autophagy) |
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Term
| VACUOLES (strucutre, function) |
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Definition
| single membrane sac, bigger than vesicles / store materials such as water, salts, nutrients (proteins and carbs) and wastes |
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Term
| food vacuole vs. contractile vacuole vs. central vacuole |
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Definition
| holds food particles and fuses with lysosomes for digestion vs. bails out excess water to perform homeostasis in plant cells vs. single, large, plant vesicle enclosed by tonoplast memrane that stores cell sap, keeps turgor pressure by supporting plants heavy structure, and stores organic compounds like pigments, helps growth, and some poisonous compounds |
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Term
| passive vs. active transport |
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Definition
| down concentration gradient with no ATP necessary (diffusion, osmosis, faclitated diffusion that needs a protien) vs. up concentration gradient using ATP ( sodium potassium pump) |
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Term
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Definition
| cytoplasm (gell like mixture of proteins and other macromolecules and organelles outside nucleus / mitochondria / plastids (chloroplasts, amyloplasts, chromoplasts, leucoplasts) / peroxisomes |
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Term
| MITOCHONDRIA (structure, function) |
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Definition
| double membrane (smooth outer and folded inner cristae that holds enzymes for cellular respiration and creates more surface area to increase efficiency of reactions) / enzymes in mitochondria break down food and release energy (ATP) for cell to use |
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Term
| PLASTIDS (structure, function of 3 types of chloroplasts) |
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Definition
| factories and warehouses in plants and algae (site of photosynthesis, store green pigmant chlorophyll) / amyloplasts store starch, chromoplasts store accessory pigments like red, orange, and yellow, and leucoplasts are colorless and produce and store starch, oils, and proteins |
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Term
| PEROXISOMES(structure, function, glycosomes) |
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Definition
| small vesicles from smooth ER with enzyme CATALASE / removes waste hydrogens by forming H2O, detox in liver to remove H from alcohol, uses catalas to destroy toxic H2O2, and breaks down fatty acids to smaller substances used to fuel mitochondria / special type of peroxisome that converts oil to sugars in seeds to feed embryo |
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Term
| CYTOSKELETON: MICROTUBULES (structure, same function) |
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Definition
| ollow tubules made of globular proteins called tubulin dimers that can grow and shorten / forms an internal framework that supports cell shape, anchors organelles, and provides path for movement of organelles |
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Term
| CYTOSKELETON: MICROFILAMENTS (actin structure and function) |
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Definition
| long, thin, solid fibers made of 2 intertwined strands of actin / movement and upport, muscle contraction, cell moltility, amoeboid movement, cytoplasmic treaming in plants, endocytosis, cleavage furrowing |
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Term
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Definition
| movement of cytoplasm allows for chloroplasts to move in plant cells and bacteria |
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Term
| CYTOSKELETON: INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS (strucutre and functions) |
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Definition
| made of firous, ropelike proteins called keratins, forms cable of supercoiled proteins that are most permanent ("stress fibers" / reinforce cell shape, fix position of organelles, frameowkr of cytoskeleton, makes up nuclear lamina, and bears cell tension |
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Term
| CENTRIOLES (structure, function) |
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Definition
| two in centrosome (region near nucleus) in animal cells, made of 9 sets of triplet microtubules in a ring / involved in cell division by producing spindle fibers, adds protein links to make longer and breaks down after meiosis |
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Term
| FLAGELLA (structure, function, examples) |
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Definition
| longer than cilia, whip-like strucutres that move parallel to axis in an S, and cell has very little / helps in locomotion for unicellular organisms / sperm, dinoflagellates, chlamydomonas |
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Term
| CILIA (structure, function, examples) |
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Definition
| short threadlike structures that move perpendicular to axis by latching on and releasing (more numerous than flagella) / help unicelllular organisms or substances along cells surface move / paramecium, tracheal epithelium, oviducts |
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Term
| ULTRASTRUCTURE OF FLAGELLA AND CILIA |
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Definition
| "9 and 2" pattern = 9 doublets of microtbules in a ring and 2 single microtubules in center (motor molecules, doublets on outside help move cell and rings in middle move through entire tube, and they latch on and release to move) |
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Term
| CELL MEMBRANE (PLASMA MEMBRANE) (structure and function) |
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Definition
| phospholipid bilayer with associated proteins and carbs by way of fluid mosaic model that is very porous so water, oxygen,and co2 can pass through easily / support, protective barrier, strengthenes and maintains shape, regulates what leaves and enters cell |
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Term
| PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER (exact structure, amphiphatic) |
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Definition
| hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail, tails point inward, amphiphatic = both hydrophilic and hydrophobic |
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Term
| CELL WALL (structure - 3 parts) |
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Definition
| microfibrils of cellulose embedded in matrix / primary cell wall is made of celllulose and makes cell wall elastic so it can stretch as it grows, secodary cell wall is made of cellulose and lignin, and is think in woody plants and adds strength (all made of cellulose 0 glocose B1-4, except middle lamella), and middle lamella is the gluey lyer made of pectin that helps hold cells together, |
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Term
| EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM) (structure, function) |
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Definition
| mad of glycoproteins- collagen fibers embedded in proteoglycans, all attached to plasma membrane by fibronectins (integrins are membrane proteins that connect ECM to cytoskeleton) / support and anchor cells, migration guides for embryonic cells, some gene action control |
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Term
| PLASMODESMATA (structure and function) |
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Definition
| passageway through cell walls of plants to connect living concents of adjacent cells / allows free passage of water and small solutes from cell to cell |
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Term
| TIGHT JUNCTIONS (structure and function) |
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Definition
| fused membranes of neighboring cells forming continuous belts / preventse leakage of extracellular fluid (many in the brain!) |
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Term
| DESMOSOMES (structure and function) |
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Definition
| button-like anchoring junctions reinforced with intermediate filaments called tonofilament / fasten cells together like strong strings |
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Term
| GAP JUNCTION (structure and function) |
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Definition
| cytoplasmic channels between adjacent (like plasmodesmata), lined with proteins / comunicating junctions that allow flow of salts, sugars, and amino acids between cells (electric eel, heart, nerves (between neurons) |
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Term
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Definition
| proteins disperrsed and individually dispersed in a phospholipid bilayer (mosaic meas variety of stuff, fluid means moveable and changes shape) |
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Term
| MEMBRANE STRUCTURE (lipid bilayer, inside sheet, outside sheet) |
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Definition
| made up of phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol / rich in other phospholipids, plyunsaturated FAs, peripheral proteins attached to integral proteins / rich in choline phospholipids and glycolipids, saturated FAs, oligosachharides attached to integral proteins |
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Term
| MEMBRANE PROTEINS (integral vs. peripheral) |
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Definition
| penetrate hydrophobic core (transmembrane proteins with nonpolar aminoacids) / loosely bound to surface bilayer, not embedded |
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Term
| FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS (channel / transport / electron transfer / recognition / receptor) |
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Definition
| allow passage of water-soluble substances / pump specific substances across bilayer / accept electrons from one molecule and transfer them to another / function in tissue formation and cell-to-cell interaction / specialized recievers of outside information that can trigger alterations in metabolism |
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Term
| MEMBRANE CARBOHYDRATES(oligosachharide "feelers" / glycoproteins and glycolipids / significance of carbs |
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Definition
| short polysachharide on surface membrane, vary between individuals and species / carbs covelantly bonded to proteins and lipids / important for cellt to cell recognition, used as surface markers to distinguish one cell type from another |
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Term
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Definition
| lipids and some proteins can move laterally, membranes can solidify when temp decreases (lard) but if unsaturated, freezing point is lowered |
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Term
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Definition
| provides fluidity / at hight temps the movement is restrained so fluidity decreases, but at lowe temps cholesterol hinders the close packing so the bilayer is more difficult to solidify |
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Term
| DIFFUSION (passive transport, rate of diffusion, bulk flow) |
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Definition
| water, osygen, and carbon dioxide, and other small electrically netural molecules diffuse easily moving down concentration gradient / depends on cencentration gradient, temps, adnd molecular size / tendency of different substances n a cfluid to move together in the same direction in response to a pressure gradient (blood) |
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Term
| living cell water balance |
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Definition
hypotonic solution: animal cell expands, plant cell is normal (turgid)- plants usually in hypotonic
hypertonic solution: animal cell shrivels, plant cell is plasmolyzed and shrinks
isotonic: animal normal, plant flaccid (no pressure) |
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Term
| NEED ACTIVE TRANSPORT...: |
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Definition
| glucose, large electrically neutral molecules, positive or negative ions (H+, NA+, K+ CA+), or hydrophobic core preventing ions and polar molecules |
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Term
| FACILITATED DIFFUSION (structure and function) |
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Definition
| integral proteins help molecules move down concentration gradient and act as a gate (ligand-gated = neutrotransmitters --> muscle contraction and odorant molecules --> brain (molecules bind to help protein change shape), mechanically-gated like sound waves --> brain or stretch reflex -->muscle contraction (movement changes protein), voltage-gated, light-gate) / proteins can form either a single channel or alternate between two conformations |
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Term
| COUPLED FACILITATED DIFFUSION |
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Definition
| transport of two solutes in the same direction (SYMPORT) or opposite direction (ANTIPORT) |
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Term
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Definition
| energy from ATP allows proteins to pump solutes across embrane against concentration gradient |
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Term
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Definition
| 3 Na+ bind to pump from cytoplasm and stimulates hormone by ATP, hormone then changes the proteins conformation and the Na+is released, K+ binds to new structure, then binding triggers release of phosphate group that returns protein to original form, where K is released and NA sites are once more effective, cycle repeates |
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Term
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Definition
| in plants fungi and bacteria, store energy by generating a voltage across membrane, uses ATP to translocate H+ ions, volate and gradient representa d dual energy source that can drive other processes (proton pump from cytoplasm to extracellular fluid) |
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Term
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Definition
| proton pump (active) stores energy by concentrating H+ ions on one side, then H+ diffuses down gradient (passive) and escorts sucrose using cotransport protein (maybe one down one up, maybe other orientations) |
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Term
| exocytosis vs. endocytosis |
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Definition
| processes by wich substnace are moved out of a cell by fusion of vesicles to membrane like the pancreas secreting insulin into blood vs. substances move into the cell by pinching off vesicles at the membrane like recieving "food" (animal AND plant) |
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Term
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Definition
| engulfing particles by wrapping pseudopodia around and packaging contents in vauole (lysosomes and amoeba) |
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Term
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Definition
| transport of liquid droplets by endocytosis - "cellular drinking" because it is unspecific and takes in all substances in vesicle (pinching off) |
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Term
| RECEPTOR MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS |
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Definition
| specific molecules transported through specialized regions of membrane that form coated pits of receptors to whihc substances bind. It enables bulk quantities of specific substances when not very concentrated (example is cholesterol in blood binds to LDL receptors on membrane and enter cells, atherosclerosis is when receptor protein is defective and cholesterol accumulates in blood) |
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Term
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Definition
| The totality of an organisms chemical reactions. |
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Term
| ENERGY (deff., potential vs. kinetic, forms |
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Definition
| the capacity to do work, potential energy is stored and kinetic energy is "doing work", heat, motion, light, electricity, nuclear, chemical. heat is energy in its most random state so it increases entropy |
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Term
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Definition
study of energy transformations in organisms /
the relations between heat and mechanical energy (work) and the conversion of one into another |
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Term
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Definition
| heat constant, deltaH = change in heat content due to energy released or consumed, exothermic is where heat is released (-deltaH), endo opposite |
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Term
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Definition
| changes occur without outside help, is used to perform work, and results in an increase in stability of a system (exothermic reactions and increased entropy create spontaneity) |
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Term
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Definition
| measure of dissorderness or randomness in a system ( large -->small, solid --> gas, hot+cold -->warm+warm, big molecules --> many small molecules) |
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Term
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Definition
portion of a system’s energy that can perform work (energy for rxn to occur) when temperature is uniform throughout the system; equals the sum of enthalpy and entropy:
ΔG = ΔH – TΔS T = temp (K)
more free energy, less stable, greater work capacity --> less free energy, more stable, less WC |
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Term
| exergonic vs. endergonic reaction |
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Definition
| If –ΔG, reaction is a spontaneous, energy-yielding process (ex) cellular respiration, going down a slide (potential energy of final is less than potential energy of innitial where energy is not added)vs. if +ΔG, reaction is a non-spontaneous, energy-requiring process (ex) photosynthesis (energy added greater than difference between ractants and products) - both decrease entropy of system |
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Term
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Definition
| nonspontaneous process can occur only if they are coupled, via transfer of energy, to spontaneous processes that are releasing energy(HESS LAW!) |
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Term
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Definition
mechanical work: (ex) cilia beating
transport: (ex) pumping substances across membranes
chemical work: (ex) driving endergonic rxns (+ΔG) / Removal of phosphate group from ATP by hydrolysis releases energy for coupled reactions. |
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Term
| HYDROLYSIS OF ATP TO FORM ENERGY (and ATPases) |
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Definition
| one phosphate group comes off which creates 7.3 kcal energy by creating more stable form (originally adenine base, ribose sugar, and 3 phosphate groups) ATPases = enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis |
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Term
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Definition
| Addition of terminal phosphate group to another molecule (catalyzed by KINASES that will energize molecules) newly energized, less stable compound will participate in other reactions to form final product. |
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Term
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Definition
| adding ATP --> ADP = Pi to create -7.3kcal that can be added to deltaG through hess law to create spontaneity |
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Term
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Definition
| proteins serving as biological catalysts (=involved but never used up) that usually end in -ase/ speed up reactions by bringing reactants close together, bring reactants in proper orientation, and lowering activation energy / change rate of reaction without being consumed / binds to specific substrates at active site (ex. catalase converting H2O2 to hydrogen and oxygen) |
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Term
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Definition
| Amount of energy necessary for reaction to take place (input to help it happen faster) / If low Ea then rapid reaction, if high Ea then slow reaction / Heat causes reactants to reach transition state, but too much kills cells |
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Term
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Definition
| enzyme shape changes to fit substrate / active site (pocket/groove of few aa’s) is flexible / substrate held in place by H-bonds or ionic bonds / enzyme-substrate complex (E-S) produced |
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Term
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Definition
additional non-protein helpers that some enzymes need to function / low molecular weight substances necessary for some enzyme action / may or may not be permanently attached to enzyme
(ex) ions/metals: Zn, Fe, Cu, Mg2+ , K+, Ca2+
(ex) organic coenzymes: vitamins, NAD+, NADH |
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Term
| REGULATION OF ENZYME (temp, ph, allosteric interactions, cooperativity, inhibition of enzyme activity, feedback inhibition, availability, activated enzymes) |
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Definition
TEMP: up to a point, increase in temp speeds up substrate so it has more successful collisions with enzyme; if too hot, enzyme becomes denatured
(thermolability = some enzymes are innactive at different temps, which is why siamese cats are black at tips of paws, ears, and tail because it was too cold for enzyme)
PH: each enzyme has an optimal pH, most 6-8, pepsin in stomach prefers pH 2
ALLOSTERIC INTERACTIONS: certain regulators away from active site(activator to stabilze active conformation and catalyze or inhibitor to stabilize inactive conformation and inhibit catalyzation)
COOPERTIVITY: substrate binds to one active site of enzyme, so enzyme’s other subunits are “primed” to accept more substrate molecules via slight conformational change
(ex) hemoglobin binding to one oxygen makes other binding easier (increased affinity for oxygen)
INHIBITION OF ENZYME ACTIVITY: competitive competes with substrate for enzyme’s active site (but doesn't actually catalyze reaction- wasting active site); if reversible, can be countered by increasing substrate / noncompetitive inhibitor decreased efficienty by attaching at location other than active site and destroys proper conformation (ex) lead poisoning, DDT / irreversable inhibitor locks active site and denatures tertiary structure (ex) nerve gases, penecillin
FEEDBACK INHIBITION(negative feedback): metabolic pathway is switched off by it’s end-product (like with testosterone) / end-product acts as inhibitor of an enzyme within pathway / prevents cell from wasting chemical resources to produce more product than necessary (end product acts as inhibitor in allosteric site)
AVAILABILITY: substarate, enzyme, cofactors
ACTIVATED ENZYMES: ex. pepsinogen --> pepsin |
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Term
| GOITER (pushed right/left by product!) |
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Definition
| iodine is lacking, which is a precursor to the hormone that the thyroid produces. No iodine = nothing to inhibit enzyme from producing hormone = huge growth in thyroid (need end product = pushed right / too much end product = pushed left) |
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