Selection pressures that favor average phenotypes...this reduces the variation in the population but does not alter the mean value of the trait.

A group of organisms classified together at the lowest level of taxonomic hierarchy.

The ability to produce offspring.

Stabilizing Selection= Selection pressures that favor average phenotypes. Stabilizing selection reduces the variation in the population but does not alter the mean value of the trait.

Species= a group of organisms classified together at the lowest level of taxonomic hierarchy.

Fecundity= the ability to produce offspring.

Natural selection results from the competition among...

The evolution of similar adaptations in unrelated species.

Model of inheritance in which the hereditary material of the mother and father was thought to combine irreversibly in the offspring.

Natural selection results from the competition among individuals.

Convergence= the evolution of similar adaptations in unrelated species.

Blending inheritance= model of inheritance in which the hereditary material of the mother and father was thought to combine irreversibly in the offspring.

What 2 factors define evolution?

What 2 factors define a species?

The sequence of amino acid side chains of a protein

Evolution=

1.Species have changed over time

2.Species have a common origin

Species=

1.Reproductive Isolation

2.Overall Appearance

Primary Structure= the sequence of amino acid side chains of a protein

A form of RNA that carries specifications for protein synthesis from DNA to ribosomes.

A form of RNA that facilitates protein synthesis by first binding to amino acids in the cytoplasm and then binding to the appropriate site on the mRNA molecule.

Segment of DNA that is not translated into a protein.

mRNA= RNA that carries specifications for protein synthesis from DNA to the ribosomes.

tRNA= RNA that facilitates protein synthesis by first binding to amino acids in the cytoplasm and then binding to the appropriate site on the mRNA molecule.

Introns= segments of DNA that are not translated into proteins.

The branch of biology dealing with the processes that change the genetic composition of populations through time.

Traits that are statistically associated in a population (ex. long legs and long arms).

An evolutionary change in one character caused by selection on a second, correlated character.

Population Genetics= The branch of biology dealing with the processes that change the genetic composition of populations through time.

Correlated Characters= traits that are statistically associated in a population.

Correlated Response= an evolutionary change in one character caused by selection on a second, correlated character.

The variation in the composition of small samples drawn from a large population.

Random change in gene frequencies due to sampling variation that occurs in any finite population.

Sampling Variation= the variation in the composition of small samples drawn from a large population.

Genetic Drift= random change in gene frequencies due to sampling variation that occurs in any finite population 

The differential reproduction of individuals based on the heritable differences between them.

 Two important properties of DNA.

Each of the 20 amino acids is determined by...

Natural Selection= the differential reproduction of individuals based on the heritable differences between them.

Two important properties of DNA

1. Stability - preserves genetic message

2. Replicability - ensures inheritance

Each of the 20 amino acids is determined by a sequence of 3 of the 4 DNA bases.

Natural Selection depends on...

Three-letter DNA base sequences that code for amino acids.

Change in gene frequencies through time.

Natural Selection depends on

1. Reproductive Competition

2. Variation in Fitness

3. Heritability

Codon= 3 letter DNA base sequences that code for amino acids.

Evolution= change in gene frequencies through time.

Does Mendelian segregation and sexual reproduction lead to evolution?

Forces of evolutionary change:

The process that produces adaptation

NO, Mendelian segregation and sexual reproduction do NOT lead to evolution.

Forces of evolutionary change:

1. Natural Selection

2. Mutation

3. Migration

4. Genetic Drift

Natural Selection= the process that produces adaptation

The ultimate source of variability.

Mutation rates (μ) are measured in...

Human mutation rate ~

Mutations= the ultimate source of genetic variability.

Mutation rates are measured in events per gene per generation.

Human mutation rate ~ 10^-4 - 10^-6 per gene per generation.

What is the evolutionary effect of mutations?

Δp=

The movement of genes between populations.

Evolutionary effect of mutations => slow, steady loss of existing alleles.

 Δp= -μp

Migration or Gene Flow= the movement of genes between populations.

Migration is predicted on:

True/False: Migration heterogenizes and maintains differences across populations.

Changes in gene frequencies through sampling error in finite populations.

Migration (movement of genes between populations) predicted on:

1. dispersal of individuals

2. ability of individuals of the same species to mate

FALSE...Migration HOMOGENIZES and maintains SIMILARITIES across populations.

Genetic Drift= changes in gene frequencies through sampling error in finite populations.

Drift occurs due to...

and drift occurs during...

Genetic drift's impact on gene frequencies.

Drift occurs due to the random effects of sampling variation in small populations.

Drift occurs during genetic transmission in small populations.

Genetic drift causes random fluctuations in gene frequencies.

True/False: Genetic drift causes isolated populations to become genetically different from each other.

True/False: Stabilizing selection enhances genetic variation.

Aspects of microevolution.

True: Genetic drift causes isolated populations to become genetically different from each other.

FALSE...Stabilizing selection DEPLETES genetic variation.

Microevolution= natural selction, mutations, genetic drift, and migration.

True/False: Reproductive isolation prevents gene flow.

Groups of organisms created and maintained through the process of natural selection.

Selection maintain ____ despite gene flow.

True: Reproductive isolation prevents gene flow.

Ecological species= groups of organisms created and maintained through the process of natural selection.

Selection maintains species boundaries despite gene flow.

Geographic isolation between 2 or more populations of a single species which leads them to diverge and form new species.

The result of competition between two species that causes the members of different species to become morphologically or behaviorally more different.

 Speciation due to strong selection that favors different phenotypes in the absence of geographic isolation.

Allopatric Speciation= divergence of 2 or more populations of a single species into new species due to geographic isolation.

Character Displacement= the result of competition between two species that causes the members of different species to become morphologically or behaviorally more different.

Sympatric Speciation= speciation due to strong selection that favors different phenotypes in the absence of geographic isolation.

Rates of speciation will be dependent on...

The process whereby a single species diversifies to fill several open niches.

Evolutionary relationships among organisms.

Rates of speciation will be dependent on the number  of available niches.

Adaptive Radiation= the process whereby a single species diversifies to fill several open niches.

Phylogeny= evolutionary relationships among organisms.

The total range of conditions under which the individual or population lives and reproduces.

Phylogenies indicate...

What is the difference between analagous and homologous characters?

Niche= the total range of conditions under which the individual or population lives and reproduces.

Phylogenies indicate branchin orders, timing of speciation events, and history of events.

Analogous characters are similarities due to convergent evolution.

Homologous characters are similarities due to common descent.

Aspects of ancestral traits:

True/False: Molecular evolution occurs at a relatively constant rate.

 The scientific system of classifying animals based on the hierarchy created by evolution.

Aspects of ancestral traits:

- appear early in development

- appear earlier in the fossil record

- are seen in outgroups

True: Molecular evolution occurs at a relatively constant rate.

Taxonomy= the scientific system of classifying animals based on the hierarchy created by evolution.

What is the difference between evolutionary taxonomy and cladistic taxonomy?

Whenever lots of male mating competition is seen, one would also expect to see...

The two major categories of primates.

Evolutionary taxonomy uses overall similarity as well as evolutionary relationships.

 Cladistic taxonomy uses evolutionary relationships only.

Whenever lots of male mating competition is seen, one would also expect to see a large sexual disparity and non-monogamous mating.

The 2 major categories of primates:

1. Prosimians

2. Anthropoids * includes new world monkeys, old world monkeys, and apes

Primates feed primarily on...

 Primates rely on one food high in ___ and another high in ___.

How do terrestrial groups compare to arboreal groups?

Primates feed primarily on plant products.

Primates rely on one food high in protein and another high in carbohydrates.

Terrestrial groups are larger than arboreal groups.

What is the pleiotropic effect?

State that occurs when all of the individuals in a population are homozygous for the same allele at a particular locus.

True/False: Random changes produced by genetic drift will create adaptations only by chance.

Pleiotropic effect= genes that affect more than one character (most genes fall into this category)

Fixation= state that occurs when all of the individuals in a population are homozygous for the same allele at a particular locus.

*in general, the smaller the population, the sooner it reaches fixation

True: Random changes produced by genetic drift will create adaptations only by chance.

True/False: Genetic drift is most likely to generate significant maladaptation in traits that vary continuously and are affected by many loci.

An explanation for the evolution of continuously varying traits that combines the theory and empirical evidence of both Mendelian genetics and Darwinism.

Traits that are very insensitive to environmental conditions during development, resulting in similar phenotypes in a wide range of environments.

FALSE...Genetic drift is NOT likely to generate significant maladptation in traits that vary continuously and are affected by many loci.

Traits that are very sensitive to environmental conditions during development, resulting in different phenotypes in different environments.

 Evolution of populations within a species.

Evolution of new species, families, and higher taxa.

Plastic= traits that are very sensitive to environmental conditions during development, resulting in different phenotypes in different environments.

*male soupberry bugs in Oklahoma are plastic

in FL, they are canalized

Microevolution= evolution of populations within a species.

Macroevolution= evolution of new species, families, and higher taxa.

The process in which selection acts against the likelihood of hybrids occurring b/w members of two phenotypically distinctive populations, leading to the evolution of mechanisms that prevent interbreeding.

A two-step process of speciation in which 1) selection causes differentiation of geographically separate, partially isolated populations of a species and 2) subsequently the populations become reproductively isolated as a result of reinforcement.

A geographic region where two or more populations of the same species or two different species overlap and interbreed...usually occur at the habitat margins of the respective populations.

Reinforcement= The process in which selection acts against the likelihood of hybrids occurring b/w members of two phenotypically distinctive populations, leading to the evolution of mechanisms that prevent interbreeding.

Parapatric Speciation= A two-step process of speciation in which 1) selction causes differentiation of geographically separate, partially isolated populations of a species and 2) subsequently the populations become reproductively isolated as a result of reinforcement.

Hybrid Zone= A geographic region where two or more populations of the same species or two different species overlap and interbreed...usually occur at the habitat margins of the respective populations.

Superfamily which includes humans and all living apes.

The evolutionary relationships among a group of species.

What is the difference b/w systematics and taxonomy?

Hominoid= Superfamily which includes humans and all living apes.

Phylogeny= The evolutionary relationships among a group of species.

Systematics refers to the construction of phylogenies, Taxonomy refers to the use of phylogenies in naming and classification.

A trait that appears earlier in the evolution of a lineage or clade.

A trait that appears later in the evolution of a lineage or clade.

When constructing phylogenies, what traits should be most considered?

Ancestral Trait= A trait that appears earlier in the evolution of a lineage or clade.

Derived Trait= A trait that appears later in the evolution of a lineage or clade.

When constructing phylogenies, it is important to avoid using ancestral, and only used derived traits.

True/False: Characters that occur early in development are derived.

A taxonomic group that is related to a group of interest and can be used to determine which traits are ancestral and which are derived.

A measure of the overall genetic similarity of individuals or species.

FALSE...Characters that occur early in development are ancestral.

Out-group= A taxonomic group that is related to a group of interest and can be used to determine which traits are ancestral and which are derived.

Genetic Distance= A measure of the overall genetic similarity of individuals or species.

*Genetic distance changes at a fairly constant rate.

Difference between old and new world monkeys.

What are the great apes?

What are the lesser apes?

New World monkeys are all arboreal and some have prehensile tails.

Old World monkeys typically live in one-male or multimale groups and span a wide range of ecological specializations, activity patterns and social organizations.

Great apes= Bonobos, Chimpanzees, Orangutans, & Gorillas.

Lesser apes= gibbons and siamangs.

A form of sexual selection in which females choose who they mate with. The result is that traits making males more attractive to females are selected for.

A form of sexual selection in which males compete with other males for access to females. The result is that traits making males more successful in competition are selected for.

True/False: In general, male competition is expected to be most intense in social groups where males are most outnumbered by females.

Intersexual Selection= A form of sexual selection in which females choose who they mate with. The result is that traits making males more attractive to females are selected for.

Intrasexual Selection= A form of sexual selection in which males compete with other males for access to females. The result is that traits making males more successful in competition are selected for.

TRUE: In general, male competition is expected to be most intense in social groups where males are most outnumbered by females (seems paradoxical)

Behavior that reduces the fitness of the individual performing the behavior but increases the fitness of the individual affected by the behavior.

Behaviors that provide benefits to both participants.

Altruism= Behavior that reduces the fitness of the individual performing the behavior but increases the fitness of the individual affected by the behavior.

Mutualism= Behaviors that provide benefits to both participants.

What is Hamilton's Rule?

What is the coefficient of relatedness (r)?

What two important insights about altruism does Hamilton's Rule lead to?

Hamilton's Rule:

rb>c

r=avg coefficient of relatedness bw actor and recipients

b=sum of the fitness benefits to all individuals affected by the behavior

c=fitness cost to the individual performing the behavior

Coefficient of Relatedness (r) measures the genetic relationship bw interacting individuals.

Hamilton's Rule leads to two very important insights about altruism:

1. Altruism is limited to kin

2. Closer kinship facilitates more costly altruism

Mechanism for kin recognition in which animals assess similarities bw themselves and others.

A combination of more than one genetic lineage within a single individual.

 A theory that altruism can evolve if pairs of individuals take turns giving and receiving altruism over the course of many encounters.

Phenotypic Matching= Mechanism for kin recognition in which animals assess similarities bw themselves and others.

Chimera= A combination of more than one genetic lineage within a single individual.

Reciprocal Altruism= A theory that altruism can evolve if pairs of individuals take turns giving and recieving altruism over the course of many encounters.

Anatomy of modern forms suggest what order of vertebrate evolution?

Where did four legs evolve?

What are the fish-like and tetrapod-like features of the Tiktaalik?

Fish_(gills) ->Amphibia_{(gills&4legs)} ->Reptiles_(4legs) ->Mammals_(4legs)

4 legs evolved bw the Tiktaalic and amphibians.

Fish features of the Tiktaalik:

gills, scales, fins

Tetrapod features of the Tiktaalik:

flat head and body, eyes on top of skull, mobile neck, ribs to support breathing

3 types of Anthropoids

3 Characteristics of prosimians

Diet of new world monkeys

Old world monkeys, new world monkeys, and apes

Nocturnal, arboreal, solitary

fruits, seeds, leaves, gums, insects

Where are old and new world monkeys found?

What do gibbons eat?

3 characteristics of gibbons.

New world monkeys found in South America.

Old world monkeys found in Africa and Asia.

Gibbons are fruit eaters.

Gibbons are sexually monomorphic, socially monogamous, and territorial.