• colonish moved to europe in wave of advance 
• brought crops and aniamls from sw asia
• pop grew slowly through europe (1km per year)

Three Phase Transition Model: indigenous adoption model

Availbility: forg and farmers have contact - exchange a little

Substitution: farmers appear in forg area and is now more than 50% ag. 

Consolidation: food is widespeard and repalce forg

7000: cyprus - 1st ppl and animals in early Neolithic 

6500: Greece - Neolithic villages where land is fertile

6000: italy 

5900: Mediterranean coast in france and spain

staple domestication

3000 years from SW Asai to Northern Europe 

8000: plant cultivation

7000-6500: animal 

• 5700: LBK (1st farming community in central euro 1000yr
• 5600: early neolithic came from Hugarian plains
• few 100 yrs later: spread of ag from e. europe to netherlands
• Loess wind blown dust that make great soil 
• longhouse, wattle, daub, timber
• shoe-last adzes: tool to clear trees  

• graves with good in them 30%
• 5000 cemeteries appear
• single-individual, and flexed position 

• Funnel beaker culture(trb)
• From germany to s. scandinavia 
• Goats, sheep, pigs, cattle (most important)
• ceramics: like funnel beakers, longhouses, short-hole axes

• local adoption of agriculture!! 
• 1. mesolithic path: complex HG (for 5500 yrs)
• 2. contact between mesolithic HG and Neolithic agr.
• 3. early Neolithic -funnel beaker and 1st agriculteralist

• adopting HG - complex and sedentary
• accumplication of wealth and socail stratification 
• elabroate hunting and fishing
• broad spectrum enonomies 

TRB in late mesolithic

• axes
• cereal grain
• impressions in ceramic 

atlanitc: gradual increase in sea level, temp and humidity

suborreal: slightly cooler and drier climate - corresponds with Neolithic and "elm decline"

• mesolithic = success 
• no need to adapt ag right away
• ex: indigenous adoption 

• mediterranean: southern europe 
• Overland: northern europe
• genetic: funnel beaker skeleton (N.E) had genetic makeup that was similar to the Mediterranean in southern Europe 
• combination of budding population and indigenous HG in scandinavia 

mesolithic (8700-6500): HG, fishers, some settlements, mostly in coastal locations 

mesolithic and sedentism: stone building, cemeteries, burials outside settlements

mesolithic and seafaring: tuna fishing (deep sea), obsidia (melos) is a rock that is fromed from volcanic eruption 

• Greece (20,000- 5000): longest paleolithic peroid in Greece
• Paleolithic capped with Neolithic: transition to agriculture
• broad sepctrum foraging: tortoise, turle, eel, fish, foxes, grain, nuts, shelfish
• Exploit Sea: lots of fish and shelfish - make to tunny fish

• 6500 BC - Floodplains of Thessaly 
• fertile, good farming, not much indigenous HG occupation, mudbrick homes
• Mixed farming ecnonmy
• pulse: bitter vetch, lentils
• cereal: barley, oats wheat (bow)
• domestic animals: SGPC

• small villages, small farming communities 
• domestic houses: square, stone, daub, wattle, and mudbrick strucutres

• stone foundation
• wattle beams 
• daud ceilings 
• beat clay floors
• clay for benches and storage bins 
• architecutre:
• overs made of clay covered with plaster
• technology
• groundstones and axes
• secondary evidence for new crops (wheat and barley)

• not sophisticated - pots were intensively finished and bunishing and thick slip finish, fire in pit kiln
• ceramic workshops (sesklo)- evidence for craft specialization 
• Other
• clay sling balls from sesklo and elateia - could be loom weight (weave cloth)

early neolithic burials are very rare -  either cremated or buried off site, some remations buried in pits with grave offerings 

• Local indigenous domestication 
• diffusion: adoption of domesticated by local hunter-gatherers from neighboring farmers
• colonization by farmers (BEST ANSWER)

• Potentially settled by marine colonists near East seeking new lands (earliest settlements in south)
• Cultural analogies: between Greece and Near East
• 1. Subsistence base: wheat, barley, sheep goat in similar proportions
• 2. Architecture: construction materials and house design
• 3. Artifacts: require special care for manufacture, likely with high status or symbolic meaning (carved fish hooks, coffee-bean eyed figurines 
•  Franchtchi cave: neolithic site on beach
• sudden appearance of dom. in archaeo record 
• adoption of complete agricultural package (sheep goat, wheat, barley etc.)
• no continuity between dom. and wild counterparts in earlier layers (no wild sheep were hunted in mesolithic, domestic sheep only appear in Neolithic)
• Other - 
• Thessaly - not occupied in Mesolithic 
• 1st agricultural settlements occur there and density increases quickly
• dates - spread into greece quickly and fit colonization by sea 
• still - artifacts and homes = similar to Near East 

• western turkey: settlements younger than Greece
• northern Levant: clay stamp seals, bone hooks, small clay figurines
• southern levant: figurines with coffee bean eyes
• island hopping route

• PPNB: great exodus, from the Near East, due to growing populations budding off 
• small groups of adventerous individuals 
• some valuable symbols and techniques 
• different geographic or cultural origins 
• Arrive in Greece from seafaring - link the levant with greece
• after colonization - culture evolution would result in new cultural traditions and techs  

• few have both mesolithic and neolithic layers
• Franchtchi cave: earliest 'lithic' technology shares commonlalities with mesolithic traditions 
• but - rapidly disappear as neaolithic becomes established 
• likely hunter-gatherer populations were absorbed within ag. groups 

• When: neolithic and bronze age (4000- 2500bc)
• where: western and central europe
• what: domestic plants and animals and a 'new world' view expressed archaeological in form of monuments
• giant stones associated w/ circle, mounds, chamber tombs, earthworks, causeways and associated with human remains 

• Large stone used in constuction of monument or strucute
• construction begain in neolithic continued into bronze age
• served as ritural center and communitry to gather

• burial mounds
• earthwork
• causeways
• meglithic 

BECM 

• chamber tombs, cairns (stone), long barrows covered w/ earth - built out of timber or stone and inside may be 1 or more chambers 
• chamber - covered in earth, mounds up to 15m high and 150m in length 
• variable number of people 
• both primary and secondary 

• curus monument: long banks, only in england and up to 10km in length 
• designed to guide ppl into ritual monuments
• mounds: silbury hill- largest human made earthwork in prehistoric europe

• ditched enclosures constructed from ditched, banks and palisades often discontinous 
• greater formalization of ritual activities negotiated by complex of ditches

• standing stone - giant erent stone or aligments like dolmnes ∏
• stone circles: round arrangment of stones, different sizes, found in association with Henge monuments and enclosure
• Henge Monuments: stonehenge, avebury, carnac
• meglithich monuments comprised of flat circular area thats enclosed by earthwork 
• varied internal components like stone and timber circles and standing stones, ONLY found in British isles 

• durrrington walls: neolithic village 2 miles from stonehenge 
• previosuly there was no living sties known in the area
• population of several 1000 largest of its age in NE europe 
• possible site of seasonal gatherings and feast on pigs

• rebuildilng momuments at certain locations 
• addint to monument already in place
• constructing new monuments adjacent to those constructed previously 

• archaeological research on neolotich monuments: focus on evaluating location of monument in relation to natural features/other monuments
• study how ppl shaped and used their landscaped both consciouly and unconscioulsy
• humans - engage in activity that alter space they use
• studied using - areial photo, ground survey, excavation, geoarchaeology

where: SE Asia (yangtze river) and north china (yellow river)

when: South china and then north China 

what: independent development of agriculture 

• south china: rice
• north china: broom corn and foxtail millet

• belived rice domestication began across SE asia (thailand)
• recent evidence in China point more to early origin along mid yangtze river valley
• chinese evidence increasingly sound, more sites with early evidence, local wild rice stands 
• some sites up to 10,000-11,000 years old in same region - domestication could have begun earlier and maybe as old or older than Near East

northern china: yellow river - millet

southern china: yangtze river - rice

• arid, grassland, and deserts surround yellow river 
• people existed on arid adapted species 
• foxtail millet: primary crop in north, no morphological evidence, only secondary 
• secondary: large communites could not survive without it

• isotope study of dog, pig and human bones
• early stage of occupation at Dadiwan
• dogs ate mostly C4 plants (millet)
• pigs ate mostly C3 plants
• later stage of occupation: humans, pigs and dogs are more C4 plants (millet)

• wild harvesting of grains 
• casting portions of seeds around ag. villages
• Unintended selection: 
• non-shattering rachise
• reduction of glume toughness
• trend towards synchronous ripening

• genetic evidene that dogs and pigs were independent in china
• recent genetic study: claims dogs diversity is highest in east asia - dogs were domestic the longest 
• Early pig (cishan): smallest teeth and slaughtered at younger age
• Chicken: 6500 mulitple domestication events within SE Asia

• first sedentray village - huang ho valley
• pigs, chicke, dogs
• jungle fowl - progenitor 

• Yangtze River
• Rice

• sub-tropical
• seasonal percipitation (50-100mm) in summer
• summer flooding in lower and middle yangzte 

• most important crop in the world in terms of human consumption 
• germinate and grow 5-50 cm in water
• dry conditions during domancy
• tall plant to enable growth in deep water - reduce in competition with other plants

• require human manipulation of soil and water depth 
• creating season dough conditions
• This results in producing higher yield of plants 

• Kuahugiao - junction of yangtze and sea
• intensive human management 
• began in lowland swamps 
• slash and burn of wetland 
• construction of dams
• paddies and dams enable rice to grow in place where wild rice couldnt 

• difficult to detect b/c cross hybridizatoin with modern forms
• nearly all land suitable for domestic prog. is under cultivation
• cross pollination between wild and domestic forms 

• humans expand rice habitat by building dams
• dams = breached at end of growing season, crops dispered onto drying ground for germination 
• expansion of wild rice into new habitat - casting seeds at end of wet season 
• must have occurred in regions iwth seasonal flooding and adjacent to dry land 

larger see size 

1. imprints of rice grains imbedded in ceramics

2. charred seeds

regularities on glume surface: grooves more regularly align and smoother than wild ones 

shift from flexible - to brittle rachis

from Tianluoshan Neolithic site China (4700) evidence for slower domestication than previously thought

• local forger at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province
• late paleolithic foraging camp - contained the earliest grains of rice (n=6), but no evidence they were domesticated 
• indicated they were harvesting rice (grass). plant was not previously consumed in the region 
• also evidence for rice husk and phytoliths
• broad spectrum animal economies: diverse array of large and small wild animal species 
• Yuchanyan cave: coarse, thick-walled pottery, low fired, mixed with small pebble temper 
• oldest dated for potter production

• waterlogged site with preservation
• houses on platforms
• sequence of rice husks from middens preserved in peat
• changes in morphology of rice over 1000 years

• slit hooves
• well suited for walking in rice paddies
• used as daught animals in daught rice agriculture

• when: 9000- 3000
• cattle as early as 9000
• sheep and goats 
• plants 4000
• where: pastoralism - northern and eastern Africa, plant agriculture 
• sub-saharan Africa
• what: animal domestication then plants
• independent domestication of cattle 
• independent domestication of sorghum and millet

• Epipleolithic: 20,000- 15,000
• Qadan (mesolithic): 15,000- 11,000
• Early Neolithic: fayum culture (7200-6000) first farming culture in Lower Egypt 
• Badarian Culture (6400- 6000) first farming in Upper Egypt

• Lifeblood of egypt
• oasis that flows through eastern of Sahara desert
• annual flooding helps restore fertility and agriculture activity
• not wile progenitors od any domesticate along Nile
• no agricultureal villages until 7000
• agriculture introduced as package (complete with domesticates and ceramics)

• 20,000-15,000
• Nile was diverse marshy area rich with wateflow, game and vegetable food
• lots of small seasonal settlements with scatters of stone tools, bones, and charcoal 
• Wadi Kubbaniya: evidence for intensive havestng of local wild grasses, groundstone, diverse resouse use 
• dunes when nile flooded (fish and migration of birds)
• floodplain when nile receded (hunted large mammals)

• Mesolithic/ Epipaleolithic (15,000- 18,000)
• classically "epipleolithic" - sickle blades, grinding stones, microloths
• 14,000: fishing and big game unting 
• 10,000: 80% of diet was plants
• ritual burials begin: decorate skeletons 

• 13,700
• early evidence for warface
• cemetary = 59
• 24 violent deaths

• 8000 
• chaning nosoonal pattern (northward)
• until roughly 11000 years ago, Nabta playa too dry to support permanent human settlements 
• numerous pit features and traces of huts indicating seasonally sedentary communities 
• pottery, but still hunted and harvested wild grasses (1000s of seeds)
• possible - domestic barley 

• stone feature interpreted as a stone circle or astronomical abservatory
• oldest stone alignment oriented to stars and sun

• 1st village - 7000, with pottery
• cultivate wheat, barley and flax, domesticate dog, sheep goat cattle and pig 
• small mud dwellings on narrow lanes 
• Merimde: evidence for farming in lower egypt
• Fayum: neolithic settlment in desert oasis
• campsites on ancient lakeshore - very little architecture 

6400 6000

first neolithic culture in upper egypt 

small settlements and numerous graves (600+)

• severe drought, decimated game and widespread crop failures in near east
• some near east farmers may have crossed sinai peninsula bringing knowledge of farming 
• drought on nile creates tight cicumscription - forcing people to adopt ag.

• epipaleolithic HG: ceramics appear in epipaleolithic/mesolithic- before domestic plants or animals

• aurochs to cow 
• wild aurochs indigenous to N Africa and HG in past 10 kya

evidence for cattle

• bir kiseiba and nabta playa found cattle bones during dry period and argued that cattle couldnt survive in this enviornment without human intervention
• split between afrian and asian cattle predates domestication of SW asia cattle 
• climate in drying period may have led to domestication of aurochs when resources became unpredictable 

nomad herders that used domestic animals as primary mode of subsistence 

risk-reducer when enviornment was unpredictable

sheep goat and cattle from Near East

rock art depicting herders and their flocks 

• held up for 1000 years 
• related to change in tsetse fly- causes sleeping sickness in livestock and people

• occurs in Sahel at fringe of southern sahara
• grassland and deser meet
• agriculture developed along lakeshores that maintained moisture in dry season

sorghum (4000) first evidence, impression in piece of pottery

pearl millet (3000) appear in 61% of grain impressions 

african rice (200)

• lakes grew during rainy season but shrank during dry
• crops planted alone lakeshore 
• harvested in dry season
• hunter fishers used ths to expand habitat 

• 8000: indigenous cattle domest. and first cemeteries
• 7000: wheat, barley, goat, cattle and sheep in Egypt and Sahara (from Near east)
• 7000-4000: pastoralist economies in sahrah and ag. communities in egypt and sudan
• 3000: agricultulre in north Africa, pastoralism in west/east africa
• 4000-3000: agriculture community in Sahel, domestication of rice, millet and sorghum
• 2000: specialized pastoral in east africa

• when: 8700- 6000
• where: mesoamerica, modern day mexico
• what: domestication of corn (maize), beans, squash, turkey 
• center of spread of crop to many parts of americas 

• accelerated mass spectrometry
• overturning a lot of earlier dates 

lost ability to surivive in wild 

no wild progenitor 

one similar crop (teostine) is the closest

morphology: fewer branches, lower number of ears, larger ears, hard seed coat disappeared, increased seed rows, larger seeds

genetic 2 of 5 genomes responsible 

tga1: thickness of kernel covering

tb1: length and number of side branches 

mano and mutates grinding

labor intensive

exhausted mutates 

• insrease seed size
• reduce dehiscene - slipt open and disperse seed
• increase permeability - reduce time need to soak
• change from perennial( 2 yrs) to annual growth 

• domestication occured more recently
• original: 7000 years old
• redated to 2285 BP
• recently: 4000-6000 years old 

• 5 domesticated varieties in Americas 
• Cucurbita pepo (mesoamerica)
• wild progenitor
• harvest seed not flesh
• preserve seed
• change in thickness and curve
• increase seed size
• puduncle 

earliest layers were wild, domestic seeds in later levels 

squash starch grain from Rio Blasas dated to 8600 BP

3 mounds each with maize seeds planted inside
when 6 inch tall beans and squash planted around maize

benefit: 

• maize provides strucutre for beans to climb, elimate poles
• beans provide nitrogen for soil
• squash spreads along the ground monopologizing sunlight and preventing weed growth
• prickly hairs of squash pests

beans and corn create complete protein (20 amino acids required by humans) especially important in low-meat diets

later crops

• served multidimensional role: food, feahter, spiritual value 
• no morphological evidence for domestication 
• secondary indicators: pens, eggs, healed beaks 
• Scarlet Macaw: kept captive and used for feathers, wildly traded but not for meat

when: archaic period - early/mid archaic (8500-3500)

late archaic: 3500- 1500 - early agri.

small scale villages with some HG

• first inhabitants of N.A. - crossing bering strait landbridge
• hunters of Megafauna - smaller bird, fish, seeds and berries
• mobile HG

became more dependent on wild plant foods, until domestic squash and corn 

crops were not important part of diet until later

• basket makers practiced small-scale agriculture, settled into small but permanent villages, lived in pithouses 
• pottery introduced
• storage pits and bins inside and outside house
• pithouse to pueblo transition: shifted to above ground living, connected homes with larger village size, pueblos have storage and living space
• large pueblo village: agri. production led to pop. growth and movement of people into large community center 
• abandonment: pop growth, climate change, food storage led to increased social conflict, contributing to migration from colordao in late 1200s.
• went to northern Rio Grande in northern-central new mexico, west-central new mexico near Arizona and northern Arizona 

corn: zea mays

beans: phaseaolis vulagirs

squash: cucurbita

all domesticated in mesoamerica 

thousands of year to be suitable for dry climate 

• continuity with preceeding cultures (before)
• NOT but colonizing populations
• ceramics and tools indicate continuity in style tradition
• likely that seeds were traded by neighbors in mesoamerica along rio grande river

• relied on groundwater and settlements were close to springs and lakes 
• later: irrigation with canals, check dams
• Hohokam had elaborate irrigation systems to enable habitation in desert

• only domestic animal beside dog in N. america
• mesoamerica and southwest US
• Function: feather, pray sticks, blankets, costume, symbolic, later was used for food but only parts of SW
• no evidence from morphology that they were domesticated 
• secondary evidence:
• pens
• droppings
• broken bones 
• eggs
• 85% turkey at human sit belong to same breed, 15% are wild

When: 4500-4000 locan plant crops, 2000 bp maize arrives

Where: eastern woodlands, atlantic ocean to east edge of plans (gult of mexico to canada)

What: goosefoot, marsh elder, sunflower, squash

secondary- mayflower and little barley

first in north america

mobile hunters

more sedentary and broad spectrum diets 

new technology and wider range of habitats (wetlands)

appearance of domestic plants but not widespread

small scale cultivation

continued hunting

sedentism

pottery

small village

pop growth

introduciton to maize -not domesticated

social complexity 

• seed encased achene size 
• not native to east 
• moved from west to mid holocene short before domestication
• domestication: increased achene size, clear genetic separation
• 6 carboinzed seeds from Hayes sit in Tennessee

• tall annual plants with seeds concetrated at ends of branches 
• enjoy weedy distribution locations 
• golden hair
• prominent beaks 

• Napoleon Hollow
• seeds encased in hard shell 
• wild across eastern and central US and Northern Mexico
• increased shell size indicated domestication
• first large shell appears in illision site 

1. 3 plants were aggressive colonizer of distributed land
2. HG became more sedentary (broad spectrum diets)
3. humans created midden: provided natural fertilizer, wild discarded seeds - almost domesticated themselves
4. deliberate planint of crops
5. domesticated 

• small varieties with thin rinds and large fruits first appear 7000 years ago
• thicker rinds, larger fuirts and larger seeds dating to 4000 BP
• no wild progenitors
• believed it came from mesoamerica - 
• 2 kinds of gourds: 
1. green and yellow gourd - cultivated crooknecks, acorn and scallop squash
2. orange gourds - cultivated pumpkins and marrow

floodplains - surveyed river valleys were ag. was rare and found wild gourd all over

gourd proved to have unique genetic profile 

late archaic shell midden site in Illinios 

clay house 

domestication of 2 species of chenopodium: bottle gourd, marshelder and sunflower 

before- only spotty records of 4 domestics were recorded at different sites

Found - converge into a crop complex - 4 plants appear together at wide range of site because affluent foragers settled in rich enviornments (not b/c pop growth)

• mesoamerican vs. southwestern origins
• mesoamerican proposal are big when it comes to sqush
• no argument that maize is clearly domesticated in mesoamerica

• large scale farming not adopted until 1200
• maize doesnt dramatically change societies 
• not adopted in large scale until 800
• corn beans squash triad - in place in 1000

• Increase importance of farming
• Increase seeds consumed 
• New species domesticated
• Increase complexity in river valley societies (large earthworks and nice artifacts made luxury raw material)

when: 4000-5000

where: high altitudes Andes Mountain, modern day Peru, Bolivia, Chile

what: plants potato, quinoa

animals: llamas, alpaca, guinea pig

llama: domesticated

Alpaca: domesticated

guanaco: wild

vicuna: wild

• High altitude grasslands in Andes
• extends from treeline (9600-10500 ft) to permanent snow line (13500-15000 ft) 
• From central Peru along the Andes into Northern Argentina and Chile 

Preferred habitat for the 4 camelids 

• 9000: specialized hunting in wild
• 4000: domesticated - indicate by age profile, increased frequencies, no evidcence for morphological change

• Progenitor: guanaco (pack animals, fuel, fertilizer, meat)
• used by Inca for transport across roads
• llama mummies: value of wool they were killed by blow to the head and buried in the ground - finner softer hair, highly valued in Incans and bred for those reasons
• llama and guanaco have thick teeth enamel on both sides of teeth 

smaller than llama with shorter ears

progenitor - wild alpaca or vicuna 

used for fleece

Peru - early alpaca domestication by 600

specialized hunting of Vicuna - 9 vicuna for every guanaco

llama and alpaca: similariy in bone morphology and potential hybridization among species 

Model 1: Zooarchaeological data 

guanaco to llama , vicuna to alpaca

Model 2: Modern Extant data 

guanaco to both llama and vicuna (no alpaca)

raised for meat and kept as pets 

domestication came from commensal relationship - lived in homes 

Elevations of 5400 + feet

Progenitor: chenopodium but not firmly established

coated with bitter-taste that must be remoeved by soaking - taste protects from tests

10,000 ft

Seeds have thinner seed coats than wild chenopods

None are AMS dated - later dates 4000-5000 

become more common to get higher depsits 

foraged in areas rich in wild chenopodium 

llamas may have been dispersal agent- disperse seed in dung and provide a natrual fertilizer

Lake Titicaca Basin

4th most important crop to maize, wheat and rice

• tubers are notoriously poorly preserved exept in very dry climate 
• monophyletic origin in norther peru
• center of genetic variation of modern cultigens in Lake titicaca basin 

early maize in highland of Peru

maize phytoliths provide evidence for movement of maize from tropics 1000 years earlier then previously 

• llama, alpaca, Guinea pig, Quiona and Potato - domesticated as package 4000-5000
• evidence from dry puna highlands
• Agriculture began: river valley in Andes Mountains 
• pottery and sedentary communities
• maize is being used but people arent depedent on it

first organized village in South America (5300-3500)

changed from small village to 1250 people

Plaza with 4 mounds and public buildings

1200-1535

Supported by local domesticated crops (quinoa) and mazie was still an important crop

relied on llamas for transportation