Term
| What is the difference between evolutionary and non-evolutionary change? |
|
Definition
| Evolutionary changes result in genetic changes, while non-evolutionary changes reflect significant alterations in health and lifestyle. Non-evolutionary changes leave impressions on skeletons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Culture is defined as a learned behavior that is transmitted from person to person. It is the unifying theme of study in cultural anthropology. Individuals are shaped by their genome and by their environment over the course of their lifetime. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 6 steps to becoming human? |
|
Definition
- Bipedalism
- Blunt teeth
- Material culture (stone tools)
- Hyoid bone/speech (evidence to increased intelligence/bigger brains
- Cooperative hunting with tools/long distances
- Domestication of animals/food
|
|
|
Term
| What are the 6 steps of the scientific method? |
|
Definition
- Make an observation
- Ask a question
- Form a hypothesis
- Make a prediction
- Make an experiment
- Result and retest
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hypotheses are testable statements that potentially explain scientific phenomena observed in the natural world. They explain observations, predict the results of future investigation and can be refuted by new evidence. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A theory is a set of hypotheses that have been rigorously tested and validated, leading to their establishment as a generally accepted explanation of a specific phenomena. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Scientific law is a theory that becomes absolutely true. Some examples are gravity and thermodynamics. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Anthropology is the study of humankind, viewed from the perspective of all people and times. |
|
|
Term
| What is biological anthropology? |
|
Definition
| Biological anthropologists study human biological evolution and human biocultural variation. This is also called physical anthropology. |
|
|
Term
| What is the biocultural approach? |
|
Definition
| The biocultural approach is the scientific study of the interrelationship between what humans have inherited genetically and culturally. |
|
|
Term
| What are Darwin's 4 theories of natural selection? |
|
Definition
- Genetic variation in all populations
- Environmental challenges to reproduction
- Those that meet the challenges successfully tend to leave more offspring
- More offspring are produced than the environment can support.
|
|
|
Term
| What can we hypothesize and test based on Darwin's observations about natural selection? |
|
Definition
- Those with favorable traits will have more offspring.
- Favorable traits will accumulate in populations.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fossils are physical remains of part or all of once-living organisms, mostly bones and teeth, that have become mineralized by the replacement of organic with inorganic materials. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A species is a group of related organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile, viable offspring. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Adaptations are changes in physical structure, function or behavior that allow an organism or species to survive and reproduce in a given environment. Darwin concluded that adaptation was the most important part of evolution. |
|
|
Term
| What is natural selection? |
|
Definition
| Natural selection is the process by which some organisms, with features that enable them to adapt to their environment, preferentially survive and reproduce, thereby increasing the frequency of those features in the population. It is the primary driver of evolution. |
|
|
Term
| What three key things did scientists realize by the 1700s about the world and its inhabitants that shaped the origin of evolutionary theory? |
|
Definition
- The earth is very ancient (4.6 billion years old)
- The earth's surface is very different now than it was in the past.
- Plants and animals have changed over time.
|
|
|
Term
| What were the five scientific disciplines that Darwin drew information from in order to generate is theory, and how did each contribute to his theory? |
|
Definition
- Geology - Demonstrated the great age of our planet and the development of its landscape
- Paleontology - Detailed past lifeforms
- Taxonomy - The classification of past and living life forms, laid the foundation for systematics
- Systematics - The study of biological relationships over time
- Demography - The study of population/the major factors that influence birth, survival and death.
|
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 fields of anthropology? |
|
Definition
- Cultural anthropology - The study of living cultures; observations are presented in an ethnography.
- Archaeology - The study material remains to make observations about past societies and their cultures.
- Linguistic anthropology - The study of the construction/use of languages by human societies.
- Physical/biological anthropology - The study of human evolution and variation.
- Applied anthropology - Using knowledge from other types of anthropology to solve a societal problem.
|
|
|
Term
| What are the types of biological anthropology? |
|
Definition
- Paleoanthropology - Fossils give us information such as people's ages, sizes and eating habits.
- Forensic anthropology - I.e. identification of bodies at war-zones.
- Genetics - The study of adaptive responses.
- Medical anthropology - Studies human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation.
- Primatology - The study of primates.
|
|
|
Term
| Who was James Hutton and how did he contribute to the Evolutionary Theory? |
|
Definition
| James Hutton (1788) was a Scottish scientist known as the Father of Geology. He calculated the earth's age in millions of years and found geological evidence of an evolutionary time span. He believed that the natural processes operating today are the same as natural processes that happened in the past. This theory is called uniformitarianism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A genus is a group of related species. A single genus could include more than one species. |
|
|
Term
| Who was Thomas Malthus and how did he contribute to the Evolutionary Theory? |
|
Definition
| Thomas Malthus (1798) was a huge influence on Darwin's thinking. He founded the science of demography, and he concluded that only the fittest get resources. He believed that eventually there will be more people than resources. |
|
|
Term
| Which of Thomas Malthus's observations inspired Darwin's theory of natural selection? (Hint: there are 5). |
|
Definition
- For most organisms, every pair of parents produces multiple (sometimes many) offspring
- For most organisms, the population size remains the same. No increase occurs over time
- Population is limited by the food supply
- Members of populations compete for access to food
- No two members of a species are alike in their physical attributes; variation exists.
|
|
|
Term
| Who was Jean-Baptiste Lamark and how did he contribute to the Evolutionary Theory? |
|
Definition
| Jean-Baptiste Lamark (1809) developed an early theory of evolution that focused on the inheritance of acquired characteristics. He speculated that plants and animals not only change in form over time but do so for purposes of self-improvement. His theory is more applicable to epigenetics (based on studies of the offspring of people who lived during famine periods). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lamarkism, first proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamark, is the theory of evolution through the inheritance of acquired characteristics in which an organism can pass on features acquired during its lifetime. We now know, however, that this theory is wrong; offspring do not inherit traits acquired by their parents. |
|
|
Term
| Who was Charles Darwin and how did he contribute to the Evolutionary Theory? |
|
Definition
| Charles Darwin (1859) founded evolutionary biology, which is the study of organisms and their changes. He sailed around the world at age 23, during which time he hypothesized that surviving offspring had attributes advantageous for acquiring food and developed his theory of natural selection. In 1859 he published a book called On the Origin of Species. He also came up with the theory of blending inheritance (the idea that the phenotype of an offspring was a uniform blend of the parent’s phenotypes) but this theory was proved wrong by Gregor Mendel. |
|
|
Term
| Who was Gregor Mendel and how did he contribute to the Evolutionary Theory? |
|
Definition
| Gregor Mendel (1865) provided a mechanism for natural selection and evolution. He was the scientist who proved Darwin’s blending inheritance theory wrong, because his researched showed that a discrete physical unit (gene) was responsible for each characteristic of an organism. He is known as the father of genetics. |
|
|
Term
| What is Mendelian genetics? |
|
Definition
| Mendelian genetics, aka Mendelian inheritance, is the basic set of principals associated with the transition of genetic material, forming the basis of genetics, including the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Genes are the physical units of inheritance. A gene is a sequence of DNA on a chromosome, coded to produce a specific protein. Each DNA sequence is a gene, and the complete set of genes in an individual cell is called the genome. Genes have two subunits, one from the mother and one from the father, each called an allele. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An allele is one or more alternative forms of a gene. Each allele is either dominant or recessive. |
|
|
Term
| What is a dominant allele? |
|
Definition
| A dominant allele is an allele that is expressed in an organism's phenotype and that simultaneously masks the effects of another allele, if one is present. |
|
|
Term
| What is a recessive allele? |
|
Definition
| A recessive allele is an allele that is expressed in an organism's phenotype if two copies are present, but is masked if the dominant allele is present. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism; the combination of alleles for a given gene. Example: homozygous dominant, heterozygous, and homozygous recessive. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A phenotype is the physical expression of the genotype, and it may be influenced by the environment. Example: Yellow peas and green peas. |
|
|
Term
| How did Darwin and Mendel's theories complement each other? |
|
Definition
| The combination of Darwin's theory of evolution and Mendel's theory of heredity resulted in an evolutionary synthesis - a unified theory of evolution that combines genetics with natural selection. |
|
|
Term
| Who was Thomas Hunt Morgan and how did he contribute to the Evolutionary Theory? |
|
Definition
| Thomas Hunt Morgan (1908) was an American geneticist who observed that a new gene could appear as a result of spontaneous change in an existing gene. This kind of genetic change is called a mutation. |
|
|
Term
| In humans, brown eyes (B) are dominant over blue (b). A brown-eyed man marries a blue-eyed woman and they have three children, two of whom are brown-eyed and one of whom is blue-eyed. What is the man’s genotype? What are the genotypes of the children? |
|
Definition
| The man's genotype is Bb. The two brown-eyed children's genotypes are also Bb, and the blue-eyed child's genotype is bb. |
|
|
Term
| What is the law of segregation? |
|
Definition
| The law of segregation is Mendel's first law, which asserts that the two alleles for any given gene (or trait) are inherited, one from each parent; during gamete production, only one of the two alleles will be present in each ovum or sperm. |
|
|
Term
| What is the law of independent assortment? |
|
Definition
| Mendel's law of independent assortment states that allele pairs separate randomly during gamete formation, and alleles for different traits separate (in this case we say assort) independently from each other. An exception to this is gene linkage, which refers to the inheritance of a package of genes (such as haplotypes) from the same chromosome. |
|
|
Term
| What is population genetics? |
|
Definition
| The synthesis of natural selection with Mendelian genetics during the 1920s and 1930s founded the new discipline of population genetics, which is a specialty within the field of genetics that focuses on the changes in gene frequencies and the effects of those changes on adaptation & evolution. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Prokaryotes are organisms that have cells with no internal components, and they were likely the first life on earth. An example of a prokaryote is bacteria, or any single-celled organism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Eukaryotes are organisms with internal compartments separated by membranes. They have mitochondria-power cell & endoplasmic reticulum to synthesize proteins. There are two types of eukaryotic cells: somatic cells and gametes. |
|
|
Term
| What is Adenosine Triphosphate? |
|
Definition
| Adenosine Triphosphate, or ATP, is an important cellular molecule, created by the mitochondria, that carries the energy necessary for cellular functions |
|
|
Term
| What are the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes? |
|
Definition
| Prokaryotes do not have nuclei, but eukaryotes do. Prokaryotes have a single strand of DNA, and eukaryotes have multiple. Prokaryotes have no membrane bound organelles, eukaryotes do. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Somatic cells are diploid cells that form the organs, tissues and other parts of an organism's body. In humans, somatic cells have 46 chromosomes; 44 are autosomal and 2 are sexual. Somatic cells are produced via mitosis. |
|
|
Term
| How are somatic cells produced? |
|
Definition
| Somatic cells are produced via mitosis. |
|
|
Term
| What type of cell are stem cells? |
|
Definition
| Stem cells are undifferentiated somatic cells. Undifferentiated cells are cells that have not coded to become a particular kind of cell. |
|
|
Term
| What are gametes? How many chromosomes do they have? How are they produced? |
|
Definition
| Gametes are sexual reproductive cells, ova & sperm, that have a haploid number of chromosomes and that can unite with a gamete of the opposite sex to form a new organism. Gametes have 23 chromosomes; 22 are autosomal and 1 is sexual. Gametes are produced via meiosis. |
|
|
Term
| How are gametes produced? |
|
Definition
| Gametes are produced via meiosis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A chromosome is the DNA strand that carries multiple genes. Within each chromosome, DNA molecules form a sequence, or code, that is a template for the production of a protein in the body. |
|
|
Term
| How many chromosomes do humans have? |
|
Definition
| In humans, each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46. Twenty-two of these pairs, called autosomes, look the same in both males and females. The 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, differ between males and females. Females have two copies of the X chromosome, while males have one X and one Y chromosome. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), a kind of miniature chromosome containing 37 genes, is inherited only from a mother; it comes from the ovum. It is heteroplasmic, meaning it can differ among different parts of a person's body or even within the same kind of cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mitosis is the production of identical somatic cells, with only one cell division. The cell grows and the chromosomes replicate prior to division. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Meiosis is the production of sex cells (gametes), and there are two cell divisions. Each gamete receives only one of an organism's pair of alleles. Random separation during meiosis creates variation, which is necessary for natural selection. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A diploid cell is a cell that has a full complement of paired chromosomes. Somatic cells are diploid cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A haploid cell is a cell that has a single set of unpaired chromosomes, half of the genetic material. Gametes have a haploid number of chromosomes, so they need to unite with a gamete of the opposite sex in order to form a new organism. |
|
|
Term
| Who was Henrietta Lacks and how did she contribute to medical and biological research? |
|
Definition
| Henrietta Lacks was an African-American cancer patient who unwillingly and unknowingly contributed to the creation of a new cell line known as the HeLa cell line. Her doctor cultured cells from her cancerous tumor to create an immortal cell line for medical research. Unlike other cells, her cells could be kept alive and grow. As the first human cells grown in a lab that were "immortal" (they do not die after a few cell divisions), they could be used for conducting many experiments. |
|
|
Term
| What are nondisjunctions? |
|
Definition
| A nondisjunction refers to the failure of the chromosomes to properly segregate during meiosis, creating gametes with abnormal numbers of chromosomes. A monosomy occurs when the chromosome doesn't separate, resulting in a missing chromosome. A trisomy occurs when an extra chromosome is created. |
|
|
Term
| True or false: Somatic cells each contain one chromosome, which is either your mother's or your father's. If false, explain why. |
|
Definition
| False! In your somatic cells, each homologous pair includes one chromosome from your mother and one from your father. Each of your gametes, however, contains only one chromosome, which is either your mother's or your father's. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A cross-over is the process by which homologous chromosomes partially wrap around each other and exchange genetic information during meiosis. The result is recombination, which is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Haplotypes are a group of alleles that tend to be inherited as a unit due to their closely spaced loci on a single chromosome. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Haplogroups are large sets of haplotypes, such as the y-chromosome or mitochondrial DNA, that may be used to define a population. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Translocations are rearrangements of chromosomes due to the insertion of genetic material from one chromosome to another. This can spawn results such as downs syndrome or infertility. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- The nucleus - homoplasmic, contains entire genome
- The mitochondria - heteroplasmic, contains DNA inherited through the matrilineal line (mtDNA).
Replication also takes place in the nucleus; DNA transcription happens in the nucleus and transfers DNA to RNA. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the structure of a strand of DNA. |
|
Definition
| A DNA sequence is a double helix; its twisted, ladder-like structure consists of two uprights (alternating sugar/phosphate molecules) and many rungs (paired nitrogen bases linked by a weak hydrogen bond). |
|
|
Term
| Describe the composition of a strand of DNA. |
|
Definition
| The uprights of DNA's ladder structure are made up of alternating sugar and phosphate molecules, and the rungs are composed of paired nitrogen bases linked by a weak hydrogen bond. While the sugar and phosphate are the same throughout DNA, the base can be adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) or cytosine (C). Adenine and thymine are complementary bases, so they always pair together. Guanine and cytosine are also complementary bases. |
|
|
Term
| What is DNA? What is its function? |
|
Definition
| DNA is a double-stranded molecule consisting of phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, and four types of nitrogen bases, that provides the genetic code for an organism. Within each chromosome DNA molecules form a sequence, or code, that is a template for the production of a protein in the body; encodes instruction for all living beings. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the process of replication. |
|
Definition
| Replication takes place in the nucleus and is part of cell division, leading to the production of new somatic cells (mitosis) or the production of new gametes (meiosis). Replication results in continued cell production from the single-celled zygote to two cells, then four, etc. |
|
|
Term
| What are single nucleotide polymorphisms? |
|
Definition
| Single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs, are variations in the DNA sequence due to the change of a single nitrogen base. |
|
|
Term
| What are the two steps of DNA replication? |
|
Definition
- Strand of DNA unzips to form templates; weak nucleotide bonds between bases break, exposing two parental strands of DNA.
- Templates + nucleotides yield daughters: free-floating nucleotides in the nucleus match with the newly exposed template strands of DNA.
|
|
|
Term
| What are the two main categories of proteins? |
|
Definition
- Structural proteins
- Regulatory proteins
|
|
|
Term
| What are structural proteins? |
|
Definition
| Structural proteins are proteins that form an organism's physical attributes. |
|
|
Term
| What are regulatory proteins? |
|
Definition
| Regulatory proteins are proteins that are involved in the expression of control genes. Examples of regulatory proteins include enzymes (regulate activities within cells), hormones (regulate activities between cells), and antibodies (work to fight infections. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An organism's form and the arrangement of its tissues and organs are determined by regulatory genes called homeotic (hox) genes. |
|
|
Term
| What is protein synthesis, and where does it take place? |
|
Definition
| Protein synthesis is the transcription and translation of specific parts of DNA to form proteins. Transcription takes place in the nucleus, and translation takes place in the cytoplasm. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the transcription phase of protein synthesis. |
|
Definition
| Transcription occurs in the nucleus, and is the process of DNA becoming RNA. The process begins with an enzyme called polymerase copying the DNA sequence to a similar molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA). It replaces T with U (Uracil), a helper base, making it clear that the mRNA is a copy. The bases (A, T, G, C) on one strand of the DNA specify the order of bases on the new strand of mRNA (A, U, G, C). The DNA stays inside the nucleus, but the mRNA travels out into the cytoplasm. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the translation phase of protein synthesis. |
|
Definition
| Translation occurs in the cytoplasm, and is the process of RNA becoming a chain of amino acids, or polypeptide. the ribosomes in the cytoplasm use transfer RNA (tRNA) to attach to the mRNA and translate the bases into amino acids. tRNA molecules bring the specified amino acids that the ribosome links together to make a protein. |
|
|
Term
| What is ribonucleic acid (RNA)? |
|
Definition
| Ribonucleic acid, or RNA, is a single-stranded molecule involved in protein synthesis, consisting of a phosphate, ribose sugar and one of four nitrogen bases. RNA has the same nitrogen bases as DNA, but uracil (U) replaces thymine (T). Uracil always matches with adenine (A). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Messenger RNA, or mRNA, are the molecules that are responsible for making a chemical copy of a gene needed for a specific protein, that is, for the transcription phase of protein synthesis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Transfer RNA, or tRNA, are the molecules that are responsible for transporting amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis. tRNA occurs as triplets, or anticodons that seek complementary triplet strands of mRNA, known as triplets or codons. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 7 major protein types in humans? |
|
Definition
- Structural, i.e. keratin and collagen
- Enzymes, i.e. amylase (regulatory)
- Hormones, i.e. insulin (regulatory)
- Antibodies, i.e. immunoglobin (regulatory)
- Gas transport, i.e. hemoglobin
- Mechanical, i.e. actin
- Nutrients, i.e. ovalbumin (eggs)
|
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between coding and noncoding DNA? |
|
Definition
| Coding DNA are sequences of a gene's DNA that are coded to produce a specific protein and are transcribed during protein synthesis. Only about 5% of DNA contains coding material. Noncoding DNA are sequences of a gene's DNA that are not coded to produce specific proteins and are excised before protein synthesis. |
|
|
Term
| What are structural genes? |
|
Definition
| Structural genes provide instructions for producing for body structures, such as hair, blood and other tissues. |
|
|
Term
| What are regulatory genes? |
|
Definition
| Regulatory genes turn other genes on and off. If the genes that determine bones, for example, never turned off, bones would never stop growing. Regulatory genes can lead to lactose intolerance or lactose persistence in humans. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| This refers to the presence of two or more separate phenotypes for a certain gene in the population. For example, blood type can be A, B, AB or O. |
|
|
Term
| What are antigens and antibodies? |
|
Definition
| Antigens are substances, such as bacteria, that stimulate the immune system's antibody production. Antibodies are molecules that form as part of the primary immune response to the presence or foreign substances. |
|
|
Term
| What is a polygenic trait? |
|
Definition
| A polygenic trait, i.e., skin color, is an example of gene complexity that refers to one phenotype trait that is affected by two or more genes. These genes cannot be identified individually, and the physical manifestations are influenced by environmental factors. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Pleiotropy, i.e. cystic fibrosis, is an example of gene complexity that refers to one gene that affects more than one phenotypic trait; it complicates the measurement of heritability. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Heritability is the proportion of phenotypic variation that is due to inheritance rather than to environmental influence. |
|
|
Term
| Compare and contrast DNA and RNA. |
|
Definition
- DNA is found in the nucleus, while RNA is found in the nucleus and in cytoplasm.
- DNA's sugar is deoxyribose, while RNA's is ribose.
- DNA's bases are A,T,C,G, and RNA's bases are A,U,C,G.
- DNA is typically double stranded, and RNA usually is single stranded.
- Finally, DNA serves as a medium of long-term storage and transmission of genetic information, while RNA's main job is to transfer the genetic code needed for the creation of proteins from the nucleus to the ribosome. This process prevents the DNA from having to leave the nucleus, so it stays safe.
|
|
|
Term
| What is the one-gene, one-protein model, and why doesn't it work? |
|
Definition
| The one-gene, one-protein model is the idea that genes act through the production of enzymes, with each gene responsible for producing a single enzyme that in turn affects a single step in a metabolic pathway. It doesn't work because one gene does not yield one protein all the time; in some cases, one gene codes for part of a protein, because proteins can be made of multiple polypeptides, or subunits. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the connection between lactase persistence and regulatory genes. |
|
Definition
| Since lactase's only function is the digestion of lactose in milk, in most mammal species the activity of the enzyme is dramatically reduced after weaning. After childhood, a regulatory gene usually turns off activity of the enzyme lactase, which results in lactose intolerance in adults. However, if the regulatory gene never turns off the enzyme's activity, the result is lactase persistence. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to the genetic code but still get passed down to at least one successive generation. It refers to functionally relevant modifications to the genome that do not involve a change in the nucleotide sequence. These patterns of gene expression are governed by the cellular material - the epigenome - that sits on top of the genome, just outside it. Conclusive evidence supporting epigenetics show that these mechanisms can enable the effects of parents' experiences to be passed down to subsequent generations. |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous alleles? |
|
Definition
| Chemically identical alleles are called homozygous (i.e., BB or bb), while chemically different alleles are called heterozygous (i.e., Bb). When alleles are heterozygous, the dominant one will be expressed in the phenotype (the visible manifestation of the gene). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Evolution refers to the change in a gene pool over time. When physical anthropologists talk about populations, they often refer to the gene pool, which is all the genetic material within a population. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Microevolution refers to small-scale evolution, such as changes in allele frequency, that occur from one generation to the next. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Macroevolution is large-scale evolution, such as a speciation event, that occurs after hundreds or thousands of generations. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the purpose of the Hardy-Weinberg law of equilibrium. |
|
Definition
| The Hardy-Weinberg law of equilibrium is a mathematical model in population genetics that reflects the relationship between frequencies of alleles and of genotypes. It can be used to determine whether a population is undergoing evolutionary change. A hypothesis was formed that gene frequencies remain the same when no evolutionary change takes place. |
|
|
Term
| What is the Hardy Weinberg equation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is adaptive radiation? |
|
Definition
| Adaptive radiation is the diversification of an ancestral group of organisms into new forms that are adopted to specific environmental niches. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 evolutionary mechanisms? |
|
Definition
- Genetic drift (small populations)
- Mutations (only source of variation)
- Gene flow
- Natural selection (only mechanism leading to adaptation)
*Non-random mating --> part of other mechanisms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Genetic drift refers to random change in allele frequency over time. Non-random mating is involved. The probability of an allele's frequency changing in a relatively short period of time increases with decreasing population size. Over time it increases the genetic difference between two genetically related but not interbreeding populations i.e. polydactyl (multiple fingers or toes)- common in Amish. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Gene flow is the exchange of alleles between populations via contact/migration. The less physical distance between populations, the greater chance of gene flow. Gene flow decreases genetic variation between populations. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 main types of mutation? |
|
Definition
- Synonymous point mutation
- Non-synonymous point mutation
- Frameshift mutation
|
|
|
Term
| What is a synonymous point mutation? |
|
Definition
| Synonymous point mutations are neutral point mutations in which the substituted nitrogen base creates a triplet coded to produce the same amino acid as that of the original triplet. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Anticodons are sequences of three nitrogen bases carried by tRNA that match up with the complementary mRNA codons and each designate a specific amino acid during protein synthesis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Triplets are sequences of three nitrogen bases each in DNA, known as codons in mRNA. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Codons are the sequences of three nitrogen bases carried by mRNA that are coded to produce specific amino acids in protein synthesis. |
|
|
Term
| What is a non-synonymous point mutation? |
|
Definition
| A non-synonymous point mutation is a point mutation that creates a triplet coded to produce a different amino acid than that of the original triplet. Such a mutation can have dramatic results for the person carrying it. |
|
|
Term
| What are point mutations? |
|
Definition
| Point mutations are replacements of a single nitrogen base with another base, which may or may not affect the amino acid for which the triplet codes. The two types of point mutations are synonymous point mutations and non-synonymous point mutations. |
|
|
Term
| What is a frameshift mutation? |
|
Definition
| A frameshift mutation is the change in a gene due to the insertion or deletion of one or more nitrogen bases, which causes the subsequent triplets to be rearranged and the codons to be read incorrectly during translation. |
|
|
Term
| What are transposable elements? |
|
Definition
| Transposable elements are mobile pieces of DNA that can copy themselves into entirely new areas of chromosomes. |
|
|
Term
| What is the importance of fitness in natural selection? |
|
Definition
| Natural selection focuses on fitness; the average number of offspring produced by parents with a particular genotype compared to the number of offspring produced by parents with a different genotype. |
|
|
Term
| What are the three different selectional pressures that can act on a specific trait? |
|
Definition
There are three alternative patterns by which natural selection can act on a specific trait:
- Directional selection - one allele more favored
- Stabilizing selection - extremes not favored
- Disruptive selection - extremes favored
|
|
|
Term
| What is directional selection? |
|
Definition
| Directional selection is selection for one allele over the other alleles, causing the allele frequencies to shift in one direction. This selectional pressure favors one extreme form of a trait. |
|
|
Term
| What is stabilizing selection? |
|
Definition
| Stabilizing selection is selection against the extremes of the phenotypic distribution, decreasing the genetic diversity for this trait in the population. |
|
|
Term
| What is disruptive selection? |
|
Definition
| Disruptive selection is selection for both extremes of the phenotypic distribution; may eventually lead to a speciation event. |
|
|
Term
| What is a speciation event? |
|
Definition
| A speciation event is a moment in which the evolutional lineage splits, starting history of a new species. |
|
|
Term
| What is sickle-cell anemia and how does it relate to mutation and natural selection? |
|
Definition
| Sickle-cell anemia is a genetic blood disease in which the red blood cells become deformed and sickle-shaped, decreasing their ability to carry oxygen to tissues. It is the result of a point mutation on chromosome II. Malaria became a selective pressure in Africa as agriculture opened up tropical forested ecosystems, attracting mosquitos. There was a high S gene frequency among the habitants of this region. Carriers, and those with sickle-cell anemia, had protection against the malaria endemism. Anthony Allison discovered that individuals homozygous for normal hemoglobin (AA) were highly susceptible to dying from malaria; individuals homozygous for sickle-cell anemia (SS) did not survive to reproduce; However, individuals heterozygous for normal hemoglobin and the sickle-cell mutation (AS) either did not contract malaria or suffered a less severe malaria infection. That these frequencies were being maintained indicated that the AS heterozygote was a balanced polymorphism, or a situation in which selection maintains two or more phenotypes for a specific gene in a population. |
|
|
Term
| What is the Founder Effect? |
|
Definition
| The founder effect is the accumulation of random genetic changes in a small population that has become isolated from the parent population due to the genetic input of only a few colonizers. The result is a loss of gene variation through reproductive isolation. Founder effect has been documented in several genetic diseases that affect humans, such as Huntington's Chorea. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Admixture is the exchange of genetic material between two or more populations. |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between an endogamous and an exogamous population? |
|
Definition
| An endogamous population is one in which individuals breed only with other members of their population, while members of exogamous populations breed only with nonmembers of their population. |
|
|
Term
| Contrast spontaneous mutations and induced mutations. |
|
Definition
| Spontaneous mutations are random changes in DNA that occur during cell division. Induced mutations are mutations in the DNA resulting from exposure to mutagens, such as toxic chemicals or radiation. |
|
|
Term
| What is the good and bad news associated with epigenetics? |
|
Definition
- Good: Scientists are learning to manipulate epigenetic marks in the lab, which means they're developing drugs that treat illness simply by silencing bad genes and jump-starting good ones.
- Bad: Lifestyle choices like smoking/eating too much can change the epigenetic marks atop your DNA in ways that cause the genes for obesity to express themselves too strongly and the genes for longevity to express themselves too weakly.
|
|
|
Term
| How do the 4 primary evolutionary mechanisms (mutation, natural selection, genetic drift and gene flow) affect genetic variation? |
|
Definition
| Mutations cause new genetic variation in a population, natural selection results in a decrease in genetic variation, genetic drift increases the genetic difference between two genetically related but not interbreeding populations, and the founder effect results in a loss of gene variation through reproductive variation. |
|
|
Term
| What are the prominent behavioral tendencies of primates? |
|
Definition
- Primates are adopted to life in the trees. They express arboreal adaptation in a set of behaviors and anatomical characteristics that is unique among mammals.
- Primates express dietary plasticity - a diet's flexibility in adapting to a given environment.
- Primates invest a lot of time and care in few offspring; they express parental investment.
- They are intelligent, diverse, and demonstrate complex social behavior.
- They are long lived.
|
|
|
Term
| What physical qualities do primates possess that display arboreal adaptation? |
|
Definition
| Even the few primates that spend all or most of their time on the ground have retained, over the course of their evolution, a number of features shared with an arboreal common ancestor. Primates have a strong upper body clavicle, rotating forearm, distinctive spinal column, hallux (big toe) curved for opposability and opposable thumbs/precision grip. |
|
|
Term
| What are some examples of sensory adaptation in primates? |
|
Definition
| Primates have an enhanced sense of touch (dermal ridges, nerve endings, nails instead of claws) and enhanced vision (eyes rotated forward, overlap in vision field, color vision). However, they also have reduced smell (rhinarium lost, smell secondary sense). |
|
|
Term
| How do primates display dietary plasticity and dentition? |
|
Definition
| Primates have a wide dietary range, demonstrated by their variety of tooth types and their reduced number of teeth. Some specialized teeth include tooth combs and canine premolar honing complex. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Preadaptation is an organism's use of an anatomical feature in a way unrelated to the feature's original function. The vertical body tendency in prehuman ancestors was an essential preadaptation to human's bipedality. |
|
|
Term
| The order of primates has two suborders. What are they? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| One of the suborders of the order of primates, promisians are the most primitive of primates, having retained a relatively large number of ancestral traits, or primitive characteristics (present in multiple species of a group). Promisians retained a rhinarium and snout, have a combination of nails and claws, and their phalanges are less dexterous. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| One of the suborders of the order of primates, anthropoids are higher primates: monkeys, apes and humans. There are two subcategories of anthropoids: platyrrhine and catarrhine. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Platyrrhine is one of the two subdivisions of the higher primates also known as New World Monkeys. They have no rhinarium, but they do have prehensile tails (acts as a kind of hand for support in trees) and forward facing nostrils. They inhabit arboreal habitats. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Catarrhine is one of the two subdivisions of the higher primates. It contains the Old World monkeys and the apes. These primates have terrestrial and arboreal habits, no prehensile tail, sideways facing nostrils and ischial callosities. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hominoids are apes. They are a type of catarrhine. They do not have tails, are highly intelligent, and even have menstrual cycles. They are unique in that they demonstrate brachiation, knuckle-walking and bipedalism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Brachiation is a form of arboreal locomotion in which primates swing from tree limb to tree limb using only their arms. |
|
|
Term
| True or false: Humans evolved upright walking from knuckle-walking. |
|
Definition
| False! Chimpanzees evolved knuckle-walking after they split from humans 6 million years ago, and humans evolved upright walking without knuckle-walking. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Bipedalism refers to walking on two limbs (legs). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In 1960, Jane Goodall discovered that primates (chimps) have material culture. This means that they posses the ability to understand complex symbolization. Goodall also observed that the production and use of the material culture was highly local, implying transmission through generations. |
|
|
Term
| What are 3 ways that primate societies are diverse? |
|
Definition
- Primates express themselves socially through a range of behaviors.
- Many primate societies are complexly organized.
- Primates form various social relationships for the long term.
|
|
|
Term
| What are the 6 main types of primate residence patterns? |
|
Definition
- One male, multi-female; polygynous society
- One female, multi-male; polyandrous society
- Multi-male, multi-female, low competition
- All-male (temporary group)
- One-male, one-female; monogamous society
- Solitary; interaction only for sexual activity
|
|
|
Term
| What is a polyandrous society? |
|
Definition
| A polyandrous society is a single-male, multi-female society where the one male has multiple partners. Sexual dimorphism can be seen in these societies. |
|
|
Term
| What is sexual dimorphism? |
|
Definition
| Sexual dimorphism is a phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species. Examples of such differences include differences in morphology, size, ornamentation and behaviour. |
|
|
Term
| What is a polyandrous society? |
|
Definition
| A polyandrous society is a single-female, multi-male society in which one female mates with non-polygynous males. This social system is very rare. |
|
|
Term
| Is competition high or low in a multi-male, multi-female primate society? |
|
Definition
| In a multi-male, multi-female primate society, there is relatively low competition for mates. Sexual promiscuity occurs, and sexual dimorphism is not extreme. |
|
|
Term
| What is a monogamous society? |
|
Definition
| A monogamous society is a single-male, single-female society in which reproductive success tied to a primate's partner. Males in these societies invest heavily in their offspring. |
|
|
Term
| Is sexual dimorphism high or low in solitary societies? |
|
Definition
| In solitary societies, interaction between adult males and females occurs almost only for sexual activity, so sexual dimorphism is high. Male territory crosses 2-3 female territories, and unsuccessful males become even more solitary. |
|
|
Term
| What is sexual selection? |
|
Definition
| Sexual selection is the frequency of traits that change due to those traits' attractiveness to members of the opposite sex. |
|
|
Term
| What role do male primates play in sexual selection? |
|
Definition
| Males' primary strategy is to physically compete for access to reproductively mature females. Their body size and the size of their canines contributes to this. Sexual dimorphism in males also plays a role in sexual selection. Another male strategy is infanticide, which is the killing of a nursing infant by a foreign male. |
|
|
Term
| What role do female primates play in sexual selection? |
|
Definition
| Females compete with each other for resources that enable them to care for their young. There is a social hierarchy among female primates, where higher ranked females provide more resources than lower-ranked females. |
|
|
Term
| How do primates acquire food? |
|
Definition
Primates find food by foraging: looking, handling and processing. There are 3 factors that affect successful acquisition:
- Quality: Foods providing energy and protein that are readily digestible
- Distribution - The locations of food across the landscape
- Availability - This can be highly fluid, depending on season and rainfall.
Depending on the society, foraging may or may not be competitive. |
|
|
Term
| What are altruistic behaviors? |
|
Definition
| Some cooperative behaviors are altruistic, in that they appear to reduce the reproductive fitness of the individuals performing them but enhance the recipients' reproductive fitness. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Kin selection refers to altruistic behaviors that increase the donor's inclusive fitness, that is, the fitness of the donor's relatives. |
|
|
Term
| Why are long-term relationships important between primates? |
|
Definition
| Primates that have formed long-term relationships with one another groom each other, an altruistic behavior. Long-term relationships also provide increased care for offspring, reduces predation and aids in food acquisition. |
|
|
Term
| What is most likely the primary reason for primate's social groups? |
|
Definition
| The primary reason for primate's social groups is probably that while many primates are proficient predators, primates are also preyed upon by a range of predators. |
|
|
Term
| What is an example of culture transmission in primate groups? |
|
Definition
| Chimpanzees are highly intelligent and have the complex cognitive skills necessary for at least some kinds of behaviors that require learning and the ability to understand complex symbolization. In natural settings where chimps have not been taught by humans, most of the tools they produce are for acquiring and consuming food. Tool production and use are sometimes highly localized. |
|
|
Term
| How do primates communicate with each other? |
|
Definition
| Scientists use playback experiments to determine the meaning of various primate calls. They have learned that volume is related to distance and urgency. Although Great Apes lack the ability to produce human speech, they can understand the human language and produce new symbolic language. |
|
|
Term
| What are some functions of primate vocalizations? |
|
Definition
| Primate vocalizations can indicate emotional state, mediate social encounters, give information about surroundings, name resources (usually food), act as separation from group – esp. babies, and can be used as alarm calls for predators and intruders on territory. |
|
|
Term
| What is a tamed contradiction? What does that mean for apes and ape societies? |
|
Definition
| Human nature is the result of "tamed contradictions," just as the violent nature of chimpanzees makes their ability to achieve peace all the more remarkable. Our species is endowed with the full range of possibilities of both our cousins. |
|
|
Term
| Why are humans the most bipolar ape? |
|
Definition
| "Being both more systematically brutal than chimps and more empathic than bonobos, we are by far the most bipolar ape. Our societies are never completely peaceful, never completely competitive, never ruled by sheer selfishness, and never perfectly moral." |
|
|
Term
| What are the two biggest threats to primate conservation? |
|
Definition
- Habitat loss
- Bushmeat trade
|
|
|
