Term
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Definition
- Vitamins
- Minerals
- Water
- Protein
- Fats
- Carbohydrates |
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Term
| Calories per gram for each nutritional component |
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Definition
*Fats, proteins, and alcohol
- Fat: 9 calories per gram
o Saturated
o Unsaturated
- Protein: 4 calories per gram
- Alcohol: 7 calories per gram
*Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates: 4 calories per gram
o Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose)
o Disaccharides (maltose, sucrose, lactose)
o Polysaccharides (starch)
o Glycogen (animal starch) |
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Term
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Definition
- Food is converted to glucose. Glucose is the primary energy source that our brain uses. Neurons cannot store glucose, our tissues obtain it through our bloodstream.
- *Carbohydrates are the major source of energy for the body.
- *Of all nutrients, carbohydrates are readily converted to glucose (in the digestive tract). |
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Term
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Definition
o Eating Stage 1: Combust food immediately
o Eating Stage 2: Convert Food to glycogen
o Eating Stage 3: Convert Excesses to triglyceride fats |
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Term
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Definition
| Energy intake – Energy Expenditure = weight |
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Term
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Definition
*Worldwide there are an estimated 1 billion people who are overweight and 300 million obese
* BMI determines if you’re of normal weight, overweight, morbidly obese, underweight
BMI = weight (lb) * 703
Height^2 (in) |
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Term
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Definition
1st Stage of Starvation (1st week)
- Glycogen is released from liver within hours of our last meal
- Muscle is broken down and alanine is converted to glucose for out nervous system
- 160 grams of muscle can be catabolized per day
→ 2nd Stage of Starvation (2nd-6th weeks)
- Ketosis (the process by which the liver breaks down fat into fatty acids and ketones for energy)
- The brain now uses ketones for energy
- Less muscle is catabolized as fat stores are converted to energy
→ 3rd Stage of Starvation (6+ weeks)
- Ketosis persists
- Individuals experience low energy (physiological response) & depression (psychological response) |
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Term
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Definition
| - the process by which the liver breaks down fat into fatty acids and ketones for energy |
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Term
| Why are people malnourished? |
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Definition
| - is a general term that indicates a lack of some or all nutritional elements necessary for human health |
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Term
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Definition
*Protein malnutrition – lack of adequate protein required for the body’s daily functions and maintenance. 850 million people are afflicted; 10.9 million children die of protein malnutrition per year.
- Malnourished folks have difficulty fighting off infections and die from infectious diseases
*Micronutrient malnutrition “Hidden Hunger” – lack of sufficient micronutrients
- Diets characterized by this form of malnutrition include a reliance on stable crops (maize and grains) with low intakes of micronutrients associated with fish, animal proteins, vegetables, and fruits |
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Term
| Examples of micronutrient malnourishment |
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Definition
| - *Micronutrient malnutrition affects billions. Deficiencies in these nutrients lead to weakened immune systems, problems with child birth, impaired cognitive abilities, and increases infant mortality |
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Term
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Definition
- a form of severe protein-energy malnutrition characterized by energy deficiency.
- A child with marasmus looks emaciated. Body weight may be reduced to less than 80% of the average weight that corresponds to the height. Marasmus occurrence increases prior to age 1, whereas Kwashiorkor. occurrence increases after 18 months. It can be distinguished from kwashiorkor in that kwashiorkor is protein wasting with the presence of edema. |
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Term
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Definition
| - an acute form of childhood protein-energy malnutrition characterized by edema, irritability, anorexia, ulcerating dermatoses, and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates. The presence of edema caused by poor nutrition defines kwashiorkor. Kwashiorkor was thought to be caused by insufficient protein consumption but with sufficient calorie intake, distinguishing it from marasmus |
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Term
| Hunter and gatherers: who are they, how long were humans H&Gs? |
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Definition
- 1) Who Are They?
a) Food collectors
2) For How Long Were Humans H&Gs?
a) 99% of our existence |
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Term
| Palodiet- what is it? How do we understand it? |
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Definition
- 1) The Paleo Menu
a) Wide spectrum of foods
i) Majority derived from vegetative sources
ii) Eventually meat played a larger role
2) The Paleo Diet
a) Diet based on ethnographic studies of
i) Living hunter-gatherers
ii) Tooth morphology
iii) Gut morphology
3) Modern-day Scavenging
a) Developing countries
b) Some more traditional |
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Term
| Why are humans fat mammals? |
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Definition
- 1) Very efficient method of storing fat
2) From evolutionary perspective…
a) Living in unpredictable environments
i) Emphasized importance to store fat
3) From physiological perspective
a) We possess energetically expensive organs
b) As mammals
i) Must maintain a homeostatic body temperature
4) Humans use fat as
a) Energy reserves |
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Term
| Why are other mammals fat? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| - Brain – uses about 600 calories per day. That’s about 30% of our daily intake. |
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Term
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Definition
*Homo Habilis (rudolfensis)
- East Africa: 2.4-1.6 mya
- Cranial capacity: 775cc
→ In comparison to its predecessor A. Africanus, H. habilis displays remarkable brain growth (~75% larger)
→ Couples with this large brain size are smaller cheek teeth and Olduwan Choppers. These choppers were used to obtain marrow from bones and to crush food items. |
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Term
| Homo habilis vs. Australopithecus africanus |
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Definition
| - In comparison to its predecessor A. Africanus, H. habilis displays remarkable brain growth (~75% larger) |
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Term
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Definition
*Homo erectus (ergaster)
• Africa and Eurasia 1.6 mya – 400 kya (50kya)
• Cranial capacity 800-1100cc
• H. erectus utilized the “Acheulean Tool Technology” to acquire meat and crush vegetative foods and used fire to cook its food. We observe a reduction of guts and further reduction of the cheek teeth. |
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Term
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Definition
- Homo habilis: → Couples with this large brain size are smaller cheek teeth and Olduwan Choppers. These choppers were used to obtain marrow from bones and to crush food items.
• H. erectus utilized the “Acheulean Tool Technology” to acquire meat and crush vegetative foods and used fire to cook its food. We observe a reduction of guts and further reduction of the cheek teeth. |
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Term
| Tools, teeth, & human brains |
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Definition
• H. erectus utilized the “Acheulean Tool Technology” to acquire meat and crush vegetative foods and used fire to cook its food. We observe a reduction of guts and further reduction of the cheek teeth.
• Expensive tissue hypothesis |
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Term
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Definition
| • H. erectus utilized the “Acheulean Tool Technology” to acquire meat and crush vegetative foods and used fire to cook its food. We observe a reduction of guts and further reduction of the cheek teeth. |
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Term
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Definition
• Earliest evidence of cooking begins ~800 kya at Homo erectus sites.
• Cooking is practiced by all human societies & its important for a number of reasons including:
o Breaking down structural tissues, denaturing toxins and chemical defenses, increasing digestibility, eliminating parasites from meats, and viruses and bacteria from contaminated foods. |
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Term
| Relationship with human civilizations, diet, and disease |
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Definition
• The 1st evidence of domestication begins ~14 kya. The 1st settlements ~12 kya (Jericho)
• With time, smaller settlements become large urban centers supported by agriculture. Archaeologists and biological anthropologists note a rapid increase in pathologies: anemia, dental carries, infectious diseases, and starvation & malnutrition |
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Term
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Definition
| • The 1st evidence of domestication begins ~14 kya. The 1st settlements ~12 kya (Jericho) |
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Term
| Intra- and interspecific conflict |
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Definition
- 1) As humans aggregate
c) Intragroup competition increases
i) ie: Social stratification
d) Intergroup competition increases
i) ie: Warfare |
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Term
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Definition
*We taste via chemoreceptor cells found on the tongue in clusters known as “taste buds.” Each taste bud contains 100-200 taste receptor cells
• Salt – animals detect salty ions. Salt is important for fluid balance and generating nerve and muscular electrical pulses.
• Sweet – sweet foods consist of sugars, easy forms of energy. Our love for sweet foods is linked to our evolutionary past when our ancestors foraged for fruits
• Bitter – many plants possess defensive toxins that are perceived as bitter. Bitter foods are associated with poison and usually elicit a rejection by the consumer
• Sour – detection of acids, some of which are pleasurable (citrus), some that are unpleasurable (spoiled foods), and some are acquired (hot chilis) |
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Term
| Omnivore’s dilemma and 4 tastes |
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Definition
| - As omnivores– the most unselective eaters – we humans are faced with a wide variety of food choices, resulting in a dilemma. |
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Term
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Definition
*Among some cultures, there are differences in taste perceptions.
*Women often experience food aversions while pregnant.
*Foods that we initially hate may become favorable later in life. |
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Term
| Examples of food and religion |
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Definition
- Mayans and corn: Mayans believe that corn was provided to them from the gods. The kernels of a cob represent human variation
- Jains and animals: Jains are strict vegetarians
- Mahafaly and lemurs: despite the fact that many Mahafaly are malnourished, they don’t eat lemurs as they figure prominently in their origin myths
- Balinese and rice: Balinese have cultivated rice for >1,000 years. Many planting and harvesting schedules have remained the same for over a century. The Balinese have developed calendars and a pantheon of gods associated with rice. |
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Term
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Definition
*Scientists have known for decades that the environment changes gene expression. A handful of recent studies have now shown that diet too can change gene expression.
*A pregnant woman’s eating behavior influences the expression of her own and possibly her fetus’s genes.
- This can affect the long-term health of her children. Type II diabetes, heart disease, insulin resistance, and hypertension are strongly associated with maternal diet during pregnancy. |
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Term
| Mice, food, & gene expression |
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Definition
| *Researchers have found that mice fed a mouse diet, chimpanzee diet, human cafeteria diet, or McDonalds diet exhibited differences in gene expression, primarily in the liver. |
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Term
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Definition
• Milk – is a unique liquid food source produced by female mammals
• Mammary glands are specialized sweat glands.
• Most mammals and human populations become lactose intolerant (LT) with age. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Bacteria that cause carries (& how do they do it) |
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Definition
| Our crops are starchy. Starchy particles in our mouths are consumed by bacteria. These bacteria produce lactic acid which dissolves our enamel. |
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Term
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Definition
| • LT is the insufficient ability to digest lactose, the sugar in milk. LT is caused by a deficiency of the enzyme lactase, which is produced by the cells lining the small intestine. Lactose breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream. |
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Term
| Why is human milk so damn watery |
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Definition
- The longer the amount of time between feedings, the more diluted that leftover milk becomes.
- This “watery” milk has a higher lactose content and less fat than the milk stored in the alveoli higher up in the breast.
- Pastoralists and westerners whom continuously drink milk can digest lactose
- The high water content found in milk is thought to be an adaptation that our hominid ancestors developed to prevent dehydration |
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Term
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Definition
- Meat: meat can be a tasty food indeed. It’s also good for you and has arguably played a large role in our evolution. Meat contains all the essential amino acids for survival
- With the consumption of meat comes a series of ethical dilemmas. Animals require food, water, space, and social/environmental stimulation. They frequently do not obtain these requirements in factories (i.e. farms)
- Animals also feel pain but often don’t live in pain-free environments. This is wrong |
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Term
| Environmental problems with meat |
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Definition
- With the consumption of meat comes a series of ethical dilemmas. Animals require food, water, space, and social/environmental stimulation. They frequently do not obtain these requirements in factories (i.e. farms)
- Animals also feel pain but often don’t live in pain-free environments. This is wrong
- The mass production of meat is associated with a host of ecological problems. The magnitude of these problems will only increase as our population does and that of other countries with a hunger for meat
- Ranching and slaughter of cows and other animals generates an estimated 18% of total human-induced greenhouse-gas emissions. Livestock emit methane through belching, farting, and excrement
- Meat requires 7-10 times more land than plant foods |
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Term
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Definition
| - the study of disease and illness patterns |
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Term
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Definition
| - any condition that impairs an organism’s bodily functions and maintenance |
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Term
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Definition
| - an agent that causes a disease, a micro or macroparasite |
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Term
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Definition
| - refers to the degree of pathogenicity of a parasite |
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Term
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Definition
| - any disease that rapidly inflicts a population resulting morbidity and/or mortality. The rate at which the disease spreads is usually what exceeds what is “expected.” |
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Term
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Definition
| - an epidemic that exhibits a wide geographic distribution, usually among continents |
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Term
| Parasites (macro & micro) |
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Definition
- broadly defined as any infectious organism capable of colonizing a host, utilizing host resources, and spreading to new hosts
- Microparasite – are viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. They are characterized by their small size, short generation times, high rates of reproduction within their host, their short duration of infection, which usually results in the hosts lifelong immunity, chronic infestation, or death
- Macroparasites – helminthes and anthropods, which have longer generation times, complete some aspect of their life history outside of their host(s) |
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Term
| Human behavior and disease |
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Definition
• Like all diseases human behavior plays an important component. In terms of epidemiology we can focus on the individual or the population.
• Most industrial diseases afflict older people, that is, the disease manifests itself later in life. Several of these diseases are genetic and some attributable to stress. In these cases, changing behavior can buffer the disease but may not prevent it.
• Lastly, people living in industrial countries have access to good health care, medicine, and medical technology |
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Term
| Civilization, domestic livestock & infectious disease |
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Definition
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Term
| Characteristics of parasites |
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Definition
• Ubiquitous
• Occur in nearly every ecosystem
• More parasitic organisms than non-parasitic organisms
• Virulent and non-virulent (co-evolution)
• Thus, parasites are a STRONG evolutionary force |
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Term
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Definition
| (When parasites alter their hosts, ie: rabies) |
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Term
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Definition
| *90% of Deaths in Developing Countries are attributed to 6 communicable diseases: pneumonia, HIV/AIDS, Malaria, Diarrheal Diseases, Tuberculosis, Measles |
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Term
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Definition
| - Roundworms, hookworms, filarial worms, schistosomes, whip worm |
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Term
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Definition
*Hookworm: Necator americanus, Ancylostoma duodenale
• Hookworms enter through the skin, usually the foot
• Larva migrans: worms migrate through the body into the lungs to mature
• Mature worms climb up the windpipe, into the esophagus, and are swallowed by the host and descend to the gut
• Cultural patterns: night soil |
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Term
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Definition
*Human Roundworm: Ascaris lumbricodes
• Ascaris are large worms with high reproductive outputs. This causes competition and “wandering.”
• Wandering worms may enter the anus, appendix, or liver
• During larva migration, worms may become lost and encyst in the throat
• Cultural patterns: unsanitary conditions |
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Term
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Definition
*Whipworm: Trichuris trichura
• Whipworm is a very prevalent parasite among mammals
• Human whipworm is very rare in the U.S.
• It is extremely prevalent with our pets, specifically dogs.
• It doesn’t migrate through the body
• Cultural practice: unsanitary conditions |
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Term
| Filarial worms: River blindness |
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Definition
*Filarial Worms: River Blindness, Onchocerca volvulus
• Vector: Black flies, Simulium
• Adult worms mate in subcutaneous tissues. The female produces ~3000 offspring a day
• The offspring, microfilaria circulate in the blood and await to be ingested by another fly
• Periodicity – microfilaria migrate to blood vessels with the highest likelihood to be passed to the next host. It appears to be linked to the host’s behavioral patterns
• Cultural pattern: living near rivers |
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Term
| Filarial worms: Elephantitis |
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Definition
*Filarial worms: Elephantitis, Wuchereria bancrofti
• Vector: 77 specides of mosquito, Anapheles, Culex, Aedes most common
• Elephantitis utilizes the same patterns as River Blindness to reproduce and transfer to a new host
• Adults aggregate in lymphatic system (usually efferent) and produce microfilaria
• Adults clog and inflame lymphatic system, ultimately calcifies tissues |
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Term
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Definition
*Tapeworms: Taenia solium, saginata
• Humans obtain tapeworms orally. We are prone to the tapeworms of our livestock: fish, pork, sheep, and beef
• An intermediate host usually is infected by eating infected feces. Humans eat these intermediate hosts and obtain the parasite
• 37 feet in humans! 120 feet in whales!
• Occasionally sheep tapeworms (Echinococcus multilocularius) may become hydatid cysts. The cysts may attach in any region of the body, including the brain. These cysts become filled with fluids and may reach 15 quarts. |
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Term
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Definition
*Sleeping sickness: Trypanosomes, Trypanosoma spp.
• Vectors:
o Tsetse Fly, Glosina spp.
o Kissing bugs, reduviidae
• “Hemo-flagellates”
• Invasion of CNS, spleen and lymph nodes: apathy, sleepiness, mental dullness, paralysis, coma, and death
• Cutting down forest increases tsetse fly habitat
• “Nagana” ungulates
• Slaves thrown overboard if symptoms manifested |
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Term
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Definition
*Schistosomes: Schistosoma mansoni, japonicum, haematobium
• Vector: Snails, Bulinis, and Biomphalaria
• Affects liver and intestines, and urinary bladder
• Cultural patterns: walking in water, defecating in water, DAMS! |
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Term
| Reading: The saltshaker's curse |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Reading: The physiology of starvation |
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Definition
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Term
| Reading: Disease in human evolution |
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Definition
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Term
| Reading: A pox upon our genes |
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Definition
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Term
| Reading: The arrow of disease |
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Definition
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