Term
Reading: Does Race Exist?
- Michael Bamshad and Steve Olson |
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Definition
- Many studies have demonstrated that roughly 90% of human genetic variation occurs within a population living on a given continent, whereas about 10% of the variation distinguishes continental populations
- One useful class of polymorphisms consists of the Alus, short piece of DNA that are similar in sequence to one another
- The results of these studies indicate that genetic analyses can distinguish groups of people according to their geographic origin. But caution is warranted
- Many hundreds - or perhaps thousands - of polymorphisms might have to be examined to distinguish between groups whose ancestors have historically interbred with multiple populations
- Traits or polymorphisms affected by natural selection may be poor predictors of group membership and may imply genetic relatedness where, in fact, little exists
- Ancestry may also be relevant for some diseases that are widespread in particular populations
- The dispute over the importance of group membership also illustrates how strongly the perception of race is shaped by different social and political perspectives.
- They have speculated about why human populations have different physical appearances and about whether the biological differences between groups are more than skin deep. New genetic data and new methods of analysis are finally allowing us to approach these questions |
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Term
Reading: Mental traits
- Lewontin |
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Definition
- The core of human psychological genetics has been the problem of "mental ability"
- The belief that IQ tests measure something that is intrinsic to the individual and beyond the influence of the environment is not an incidental feature of IQ testing; rather, it is basic to it
- If differential intelligence is the cause of differential social success, then a test that claims to measure intelligence had better discriminate between individuals with a larger probability of social success and those whose chance of making it is small.
- A great deal of attention has been paid to the supposed fixity of IQ as opposed to the development of abilities during a person's life history
- Whenever there are multiple and complex paths of causation, the simple observation that two variables are correlated doesn't identify the paths of causation
- Comparisons between people with the same genetic relationships but different environmental circumstances and those between people with different genetic relationships but the same circumstances have been most often used to estimate the heritability of IQ
- No matter how high the hertiability of iQ might prove to be, upper-middle-class families tend to produce upper-middle-class children |
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Term
Reading: Bred in the bone?
- Alan Goodman |
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Definition
- The leg of a black woman was found after an bombing of a building.
- As long as race is used as a shorthand to describe human biological variations - variations that blur from one race into the next, and are greatest within so-called races rather than among them - misidentifications are inevitable
- "race science is bad science"
- The scientific concept of race - an outgrowth of the Greek idea of a great chain of being and the Platonic notion of ideal types - is anti-evolutionary to its core
- Forensic scientists are good at estimating race because so-called racial variations are statistically confounded with real regional differences. People do vary in a systematic way depending on their environment
- In three of the four tests, the formula proved less accurate than a random assignment of races to skulls - not even good enough for gov't work
- Most traits vary in small increments, or clines, across geographic areas
- Most traits are nonconcordant
- as long as well-meaning investigators continue to use the concept of race without clearly defining it, they reify race as biology. In so doing, they mislead the public and encourage racist notions |
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Term
Reading: Science and race
- Jonathan Marks |
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Definition
- Race is not a useful biological concept
- People are similar to those from geographically nearby and different from those far away
- Dividing human populations into a smaller number of discrete groups results in associations of populations and divisions between populations that are arbitrary, not natural
- There is also an important asymmetry about the concept of ability. A good performance indicates a good ability, but a poor performance need not indicate poor ability.
- The first step toward controlling those variables is to develop a society in which children from diverse social groups and upbringings have equal opps to cultivate their diverse gifts
- Racial classifications represent a form of folk heredity, wherein subjects are compelled to identify with one of a small number of designated groups, offspring are generally expected to choose one, in defiance of their biological relationships
- Identity is a relationship defined by biology; equality is a relationship conferred by culture and society |
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Term
Reading: The five sexes
- Anne Fausto-Sterling |
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Definition
- Western culture is deeply committed to the idea that there are two sexes
- Argues that the three intersexes deserve to be considered additional sexes each in its own right
- Argus that sex is a vast, infinitely malleable continuum that defies the constraints of even five categories
- 55% of herms have a more masculine physique
- Discussion of Emma: has a vagina, but also a clitoris the size of a penis |
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Term
Reading: The five sexes revisited
- Anne Fausto-Sterling |
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Definition
- Intersexuals have materialized before our eyes - the emerging recognition that people come in bewildering sexual varieties is testing medical values and social norms
- Talks about taking the necessary steps of getting surgery
- the boundaries separating masculine and feminine seem harder than ever to define
- 1.7% are born this way
- Because sex phenotype (manifestation of genetically and embryologically determined sexual characteristics) and gender presentation (the sex role projected by the individual in society) are highly valuable, McCollough argus, the various forms of intersexuality should be defined as normal.
- All of them fall within the statistically expected variability of sex and gender.
- irreversible assignments (birth, adult)
- Experts on gender development have distinguished between sex at the genetic and at the cellular level (sex-specific gene expression, X and Y chromosomes); hormonal level (in the fetus, during childhood and after puberty); and at the anatomical level (genitals and secondary sexual characteristics)
- North American Task Force of Intersexuality (NAFTI)
- Turn the focus away from genitals |
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Term
Reading: Sunlight and skin cancer
- David Leffell and Douglas E. Brash |
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Definition
- Although most skin cancers appear in older people, the damage often begins decades earlier, when the sun's rays mutate a key gene in a single cell
- Skin cancer typically takes one of three forms corresponding to the three majoy types of skin cells: basal cells, squamous cells, and melanocytes
- UV light creates mutations where a so-called pyrimidine base - cytosine and thymine - lies adjacent to another pyrimidine
- p53 might play a role in nonmelanoma cancer, so they studied squamous cell carcinomas, tumors linked to sunlight
- precancerous skin also contains mutations of p53, indicating that the genetic changes occur long before skin cells to prevent cancer
- found that cells subjects to x-rays stepped up production of the p53 protein, which prevented the cells from dividing
- Cells unable to repair their DNA in a timely fashion die through apoptosis
- mutation and tumor promotion are the one-two blows of carcinogenesis (in skin cancer UV radiation throws both punches) |
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Term
Reading: Skin deep
- Nina Jablonski and George Chaplin |
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Definition
- Recent epidemiological and physiological evidence suggests to us that the worldwide pattern of human skin color is the product of natural selection to regulate the effects of the sun's UV radiation on key nutrients crucial to reproductive success
- Light-skinned people who had been exposed to simulated strong sunlight had abnormally low levels of the essential B vitamin folate in their blood.
- Because folate is essential to the synthesis of DNA in dividing cells, anything that rapidly involves rapid cell proliferation, such as spermatogenesis, requires folate
- Hypothesis that dark skin evolved to protect the body's folate stores from destruction
- The Inuit...
- Women in all populations are generally lighter-skinned than men by 3-4%, probably because we require more calcium during pregnancy and lactation... so we need those rays
- Generally speaking, the more recently a group has migrated into an area, the more extensive its cultural, as opposed to biological, adaptations to the area will be.
- Its unstable nature also make it one of the least useful characteristics in determining evolutionary relations between human groups |
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Term
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Definition
| Nymph that Hermaphroditus is in love with |
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Term
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Definition
- (1857-1911)
- Began his career "testing" intelligence following Broca's methodology of measuring heads
- "The relationship between intelligence of subjects and the volume of their head... must be incontestable" (1898)
- In 1904, Binet recants: "...the discouraging conculsion that there was often not a millimeter of difference between the cephalic measures of intelligent and less intelligent students. The idea of measuring intelligence by measuring heads seemed ridiculous"
- Binet's intention was to help struggling students.
- The general intelligence of a child was his/her mental age subtracted by their chronological age.
Binet was an anti-hereditarian and was afraid his tests would be applied improperly **they were*** |
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Term
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Definition
- Hereditarian, eugenicist, and psychologist
- Blatantly ignores Binet's principles for intelligence testing
- Believes that intelligence is single Mendelian trait
* develops terms: idiot, imbecile, moron
- Suggests that mental retards should be institutionalized (colonized) and/or sterilized |
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Term
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Definition
| A woman in Goddard's institution, the New Jersey Home for the Education and Care of Feebleminded Children. In the course of investigating her genealogy, Goddard claims to have discovered that her family tree bore a curious and surprising moral tale |
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Term
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Definition
- Housed in the VA colony for Epileptics with her mother.
- She was raped and impregnated by her nephew, yet she was painted as a "sexual partner"
- Her daughter Vivian Buck was labeled an imbecile before she had acquired the abilities to read and write. Vivian died at age 8 but exhibited the intelligence of your average US citizen. |
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Term
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Definition
| Known as the messenger of the gods, patron of music, controller of dreams, or the protector of livestock |
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Term
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Definition
| Goddess of sexual love and beauty |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Greek mythology, Hermes and Aphrodite parented Hermaphroditus, who at age 15 became half male and half female when his body fused with the body of a nymph he fell in love with |
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Term
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Definition
- Director of the Eugenics Record Office
- Advisor to the Immigration Act of 1924
- Strong proponent of compulsory sterilization, which sterilizes the feeble-minded, the insane, criminals, epileptics, alcoholics, blind people, deaf people, deformed people, the poor, and orphans
** Provides a deposition encouraging the state of VA to sterilize a 17 yr old woman he had never met, Carrie Buck. Laughlin described Ms. Buck as "the shiftless, ignorant, and worthless class of anti-social whites of the South"
--> "3 generations of imbeciles are enough"
- (1936): Laughlin is awarded an honorary PhD from the U of Heidelberg for his work regarding compulsory sterilizations and the "science of racial cleansing"
- The Nazis ultimately developed their Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring |
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Term
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Definition
18th C genitor had sired a child by a "feeble-minded tavern girl" and another by his lawful Quaker wife.
- Several generations later, the descendants of the illegitimate son were primarily social outcasts, whereas those of the legitimate songs were upstanding citizens |
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Term
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Definition
• Modifies Binet's tests and develops the Stratford-Binet Test, the modern day IQ test for adults
• Standardized tests given to thousands, Terman's vision was to test every child and place each in their appropriate class and type of employment
• IQ tests culturally biased
• Test results provided scientific "proof" that whites were more "gifted"
• Terman's IQ = 180
• Galton's IQ = >200 |
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Term
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Definition
- Carrie Buck's daughter
- Vivian Buck was labeled an imbecile before she had acquired the abilities to read and write. Vivian died at age 8 but exhibited the intelligence of your average US citizen. |
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Term
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Definition
- "They told me that the operation was for an appendix rupture"
- "I broke down and cried. My husband and me wanted children desperately. We were crazy about them. I never knew what they'd done to me" |
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Term
| Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. |
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Definition
| Wrote "Three generations of imbeciles are enough." |
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Term
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Definition
- 1967 - "How can we boost IQ and Scholastic achievement?"
- The above article suggested that the true genetic difference for intelligence existed between black and white US citizens
- Jensen recommended that black and white children attend different schools for the "betterment" of each ethnic group
-Jensen staunchly defended the "cultural fairness" of his tests |
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Term
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Definition
| - A number representing a person's mental abilities relative to a statistical norm, 100 being average. The most accurate IQ tests compare the test taker's score to people in their same age range. |
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Term
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Definition
- Capable of a 3rd grade level of reading and writing
** Communists, whores, and social deviants
- IQ score = 51-70 |
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Term
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Definition
- unable to take care of him/herself (cannot clothe or bathe)
- IQ score: 0-25 |
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Term
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Definition
- Capable of feeding and clothing themselves but couldn't read or write.
- IQ score = 26-50 |
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Term
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Definition
| - Sterilized the feeble-minded, the insane, criminals, epileptics, alcoholics, blind people, deaf people, deformed people, the poor, and orphans |
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Term
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Definition
- Studies of heritability are best suited to investigate MONOGENETIC TRAITS
- These are traits in which one gene is responsible for the trait under investigation |
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Term
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Definition
| Inquires into the heritability of POLYGENIC TRAITS (traits in which 2 genes or more are responsible) as susceptible to extraneous variable (i.e. noise) and it becomes difficult to tease out genetic and environmental contributions |
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Term
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Definition
- Relationship between 2 numbers
- A single number that describes the degree of relationship between two variables
* -1.0 is negative correlation and 1.0 is positive correlation |
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Term
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Definition
- One of the five sexes
- Well represented in society |
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Term
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Definition
-External genitalia and secondary sex characteristics do not match their chromosomes
- Have testes and XY chromosomes, yet they also have a vagina and a clitoris, and at puberty they often develop breasts
- They don't menstruate |
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Term
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Definition
- Have ovaries, two X chromosomes and sometimes a uterus, but they also have at least partly masculine external genitalia
- WIthout medical intervention they can develop breasts, deep voices, and adult-size penises |
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Term
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Definition
- One of the five sexes
- Well represented in society |
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Term
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Definition
| - possess one testis and one ovary (the sperm and the egg producing vessels, or gonads) |
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Term
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Definition
The SRY gene lies on the Y chromosome in humans and non-human primates
o SRY
• Testes-determining factor
• The SRY gene codes for the testes determining factor, a protein that stimulates testes growth in an embryo. People without the SRY gene become female. |
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Term
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Definition
| Endotherms from colder climates exhibit short limbs (and other protruding extremities) in comparison to their counterparts in warmer climates |
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Term
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Definition
| For endotherms, body weight tends to a minimum in warmer regions and increases as temperature declines. Such morphs serve as mechanisms to conserve or to radiate body heat, depending on climate |
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Term
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Definition
| Within the same species of warm-blooded animals, there's a tendency for darker, more heavily pigmented skin to occur in animals near the equator and light pigmented skin farther from it |
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Term
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Definition
- folate deficiency in pregnant women is related to an increased risk of neural tube defects
- Anencephaly
- Encephalocele
- Spinal Bifida
- Skin Cancer |
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Term
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Definition
| Melanomas are malignant tumors of melanocytes |
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Term
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Definition
| Melanocytes are pigment (melanin) producing cells |
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Term
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Definition
| Skin pigment that acts as a sunscreen and protects the skin from ultraviolet radiation. Melanin is produced by cells, called melanocytes, in response to sun exposure. |
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Term
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Definition
- The softening of bones. The condition is generally exhibited by children
- Children with rickets are prone to fractures and long-term deformities
- The condition occurs when children are Vitamin D deficient. With adequate exposure to the sun Vitamin D can be synthesized in the skin, or can be incorporated in our diets
- Vitamin D is critical for the absorption of calcium. Thos lacking sufficient amounts of Vitamin D have soft, weak bones lacking in mineralization. |
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Term
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Definition
-p53 is a transcription factor that regulates the cell cycle.
-p53 acts as a tumor suppressor and thus suppresses cancer
-p53 is also responsible for DNA repair, cell senescence, and apoptosis
-A malfunctioned p53 may result in prolific mitotic divisions, which result in tumors
-UV radiation, tetratrogens, and copying errors may also cause these malfunctions |
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Term
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Definition
| Leydig cells in the testes produce testosterone |
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Term
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Definition
| Stertoli cells, also in the testes produce the Anti-Mullerian Hormone (AMH) which acts to degenerate the Mullerian ducts and prevents the development of a uterus. |
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Term
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Definition
| acts to degenerate the Mullerian ducts and prevents the development of a uterus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Group of male hormones that are responsible for growth, puberty, muscle development, and secondary sexual characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
| Group of female hormones requisites for estrus cycling. Males generate their estrogen in the liver and adrenal glands |
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Term
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Definition
| Develops uterine wall in preparation for pregnancy, protects the zygote from the mother's immune system, inhibits lactation during pregnancy |
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Term
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Definition
| Müllerian ducts (or paramesonephric ducts) are paired ducts of the embryo that run down the lateral sides of the urogenital ridge and terminate at the Müllerian eminence in the primitive urogenital sinus. In the female, they will develop to form the Fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and the upper third of the vagina; in the male, they are lost. |
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Term
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Definition
| The Wolffian duct (also known as archinephric duct, Leydig's duct, mesonephric duct, or nephric duct) is a paired organ found in mammals including humans during embryogenesis. |
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Term
| I.Q. tests - what do they test? |
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Definition
- IQ tests generally do not take into account the test taker's ethnic heritage, socioeconomic status, personal history, or personal drive.
- IQ tests are great at testing a person's ability to take an IQ test. We observe the same trends in other standardized tests such as the GRE, SAT, ACT, LSAT, MCAD, etc. |
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Term
| Numerical values of intelligence vs. intelligence |
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Definition
| The scores are a practical device and do not support any theory of intelligence. The scores do not measure true "intelligence. |
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Term
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Definition
• Idiot
o Unable to take care of him/herself (cannot clothe and bathe)
o IQ Score 0-25 (Binet scale 3 yrs old)
• Imbecile
o Capable of feeding and clothing themselves but could not read or write
o IQ score 26-50 (Binet Scale 3-7 yrs old)
• Moron
o Capable of a 3rd (grade) level of reading and writing
o Communists, whores, & social deviants
o IQ Score 51-70 (Binet Scale 8-12 yrs old) |
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Term
| In the US, why do ethnic minorities generally perform poorer than whites? |
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Definition
| Because they're operating in a white-dominated society and because of the lack of formal education. Whites tend to perform better because the tests are written more for them. |
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Term
| How did Goddard use the Kallikak family pedigree as evidence for the sterilization and colonization of what he considered mentally deficient people? |
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Definition
• Goddard traces the descendents of two different family lines of Martin Kallikak, a Revolutionary War soldier. Martin marries a virtuous Quaker, and their subsequent children are all highly intelligent and "wholesome."
• Martin has an affair outside his marriage. The illegitimate affair leads to criminals, invalids, and mental retards.
• Believes that intelligence is single Mendelian trait
• Develops the terms: idiot, imbecile, & moron
• Suggests that mental retards should be institutionalized (colonized) and/or sterilized
– compulsive sterilization, colonizing people…
- “we don’t want these idiots copulating in American population”
- Goddard concluded from this that intelligence, sanity, and morality were hereditary, and every effort should be undertaken to keep the 'feeble-minded' from procreating, with the overall goal of potentially ending 'feeble-mindedness' and its accompanying traits |
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Term
| Goddard and US immigration policy |
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Definition
• In 1913, the U.S. invites Goddard to test immigrants
• Nationality & % of tested that were "morons"
o Hungarian - 80%
o Italian - 79%
o Russian - 87%
o Jews - 83%
Results of Goddard's Studies
• 33 states adopt sterilization programs
• 60,000 people sterilized
• 1913 US deportation rate rises 350%
• 1914 US deportation rate rises 570%
• 1924 US adopts more stringent immigration programs aimed at keeping out the mentally inferior
• 1914 Die Familie Kallikak printed in Germany and reprinted in 1933 |
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Term
| Goddard's influence on German policies |
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Definition
-His ideas were adopted by the SS
His book on the Kallikak's was published in German translation in 1914 and republished in 1933, when Adolph Hitler came to power. Die Familie Kallikak's suggestions of segregation, colonization, and sterilization found their way into the policies of Nazi Germany. The lethal chamber that Goddard had mentioned but rejected was readily employed by Hitler's own final solution |
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Term
| How does the high IQ scores of Charles Manson and Theodore Kaczynski falsify the argument that only the “feeble-minded” are criminals and social deviants? |
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Definition
| They were very intelligent and criminals. |
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Term
| What populations were sterilized in the US? Why? |
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Definition
- feeble-minded, the insane, criminals, epileptics, alcoholics, blind people, deaf people, deformed people, the poor, and orphans. This was done because they wanted to keep the societally successful groups of people and eliminate those deemed to be "lesser" groups of people from producing generations of unacceptable humans.
- The Eugenics Movement was predicted on the apocalyptic fear that high reproductive rates in the lower classes would doom the nation to ever-growing numbers of constitutionally stupid people |
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Term
| Heritability vs. environmentability |
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Definition
| Inheriting actions and instincts through your genes versus through your environment. |
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Term
| Problems with heritability studies with animals that exhibit a wide degree of behavioral plasticity |
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Definition
| It's hard to determine which traits are inherited versus which traits are learned, as well as possibly which traits are formed from problem solving. |
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Term
| Neanderthals and Allen’s Rule & Bermann’s Rule |
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Definition
Exceptions to Bergmann's and Allen's Rules?
• Neanderthals (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) |
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Term
| Problems with heritability studies without stable environments |
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Definition
| Without stable environments, it's hard to determine which traits are learned versus inherited. |
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Term
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Definition
| They are relations between two numbers |
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Term
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Definition
Sexual dimorphism is the difference in form between male and female members of the same species.
- In mammals and birds, males are generally larger |
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Term
| Secondary sexual characteristics |
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Definition
Secondary sex characteristics are features that distinguish the two sexes of a species, but that are not directly part of the reproductive system
- ex. facial hair on men and enlarged breasts in women
* Physical traits exhibited by one sex to attract the opposite sex. These traits are usually for fighting (antlers) or ornaments (feathers, bright chest pads). |
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Term
| Which hominin loses its hair? |
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Definition
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Term
| In which hominin does dark skin color evolve? |
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Definition
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Term
| How did the Great Depression refute the suppositions of the eugenecists and the legitimacy of intelligence testing? |
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Definition
| The educated, the rich, and those genetically endowed with mental superiority lost their status and like the poor and invalids of society, the upper crust forged a living by any means they could. This required the eugenicists to re-examine their suppositions. "Oh how the mighty have fallen." |
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Term
| Asexual reproduction vs sexual reproduction |
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Definition
- Asexual reproduction is a form of reproduction that doesn’t include chromosome reduction, meiosis, or fertilization.
- Sexual Reproduction is the union haploid gametes resulting in the fertilization of an ovum. This type of reproduction includes meiosis |
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Term
| Benefits of asexual reproduction |
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Definition
- Reduction of energy required for mating and fertilization
- Avoidance of bodily harm via aggression
- High reproduction output |
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Term
| Types of asexual reproduction |
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Definition
- Budding – new individuals form via mitotic cell division
- Fragmentation/Regeneration – a fragment of an organism generates another organism via the process of mitosis
- Parthenogenesis (virgin birth) – offspring which develop from unfertilized eggs |
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Term
| Methods/systems of sexual determination |
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Definition
- XX/XY – system found in humans and most mammals in which the female is homozygous (XX) and the male is heterozygous (XY)
- XX/XO – system found in the insect orders of Orthoptera & Blattodea in which the females are homozygous (XX) and the males possess only one sex chromosome (XO)
- ZW/ZZ – system found in birds and insects in which the female is heterozygous (ZW) and the males are homozygous (ZZ)
- Haplodiploidy – system found in most social insects in which haploid, unfertilized eggs become males and females are diploid (sometimes sterile males are diploid)
- Temperature – system found in many reptiles in which the ambient temperature determines the sex of a fertilized egg |
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Term
| What is the difference between sex and gender? |
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Definition
| sex is what you're born as, gender is what you most identify with |
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Term
| What is the difference between gender and sexual orientation? |
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Definition
| Gender is what you identify yourself as, and sexual orientation is who you are most attracted to |
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Term
| All the terms associated with gender that I discussed |
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Definition
Transgender
• Persons, groups, or behaviors that diverge from the sex of a particular entity (individual or group)
Transsexual
• A person that identifies with the gender that is opposite their sex
Transman
• Transsexual/transgender individual that was assigned as a female at birth but identifies as masculine
Transwoman
• Transsexual/transgender individual that was assigned as a male at birth but identify as feminine
Gender bender
• A person that merges the characteristics of all genders. The product of this merger is sometimes for the purpose of shock via defiance of cultural norms and stereotypes
Cross-dressing
• Person that wears the clothes of an opposite gender but has no desire to change to their gender
Transvestite
• The act of cross-dressing, a cross-dresser
Androgyny
• A person that identifies as "both" or "neither" of the genders in their society. Individuals may express dual genders. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Human migrations and skin color |
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Definition
| The closer you get to the equator, the darker the skin in that location tends to be, whereas the farther away from the equator you get, the lighter the trend in skin color becomes. |
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Term
| What type of radiation is the primary cause of skin color? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-Folate is also important for cell and tissue maintenance and especially bone growth. This is particularly important for a fetus
- Mothers that don’t have adequate levels of circulating folate in their bodies increase the likelihood of having babies with neural tube defects
- Folate can be ingested by eating leafy vegetables, legumes, and liver |
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Term
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Definition
| Melanin is produced when skin is exposed to this sun as a form of protection. Light skinned people have an easy time getting their source of Vitamin D from the sun, but if a dark skinned person was to live in a place that was cloudy, that would be bad because their skin is very effective of preventing harsh rays... they need a lot of access to sun to get a healthy amount of Vitamin D. |
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Term
| Animal examples that I discussed that engage in the types of asexual reproduction behaviors |
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Definition
*New Mexico Whiptail (Cnemidophorus neomexicanus)
-Lizard species that is entirely female
*NY TIMES – 05/23/2007
-Female Shark Reproduced Without Male DNA, Scientists say |
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Term
| Intersex groups that I discussed |
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Definition
- Hermaphrodite
- Merm
- Ferm |
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Term
| Binet Insists on 3 principles of his test results: |
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Definition
1) The scores are a practical device and don't support any theory of intelligence. The score don't measure true "intelligence"
2) The scale is a rough guide to identify mildly retarded children and children with learning disabilities who need special help. The tests are not a device for ranking normal children.
3) Emphasis should be placed on improvement through special training. Low scores should not be used to mark children as innately incapable. |
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