Term
| 4 mechanisms of biological evolution: |
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Definition
genetic drift
gene flow
natural selection
artificial selections |
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Term
| specific def of anthropology |
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Definition
| Anthropology is a holistic, four field approach to studying humans that includes cultural anthropology, linguistics, archaeology, and biological anthropology. |
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Term
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Definition
| Is the random changes in allelic frequencies is one population through time. |
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Term
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Definition
| establishment of a new population by a few original founders who carry only a small portion of the total genetic variation of parental population. |
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Term
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Definition
population crash reducing genetic variation
Example: bubonic plague |
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Term
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Definition
| Interchange of alleles (genes) between and within populations |
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Term
| Long-term termination of gene flow between 2 populations ultimately results in ________________ |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Mating within the group (inbreeding) |
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Term
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Definition
| changes in genetic frequencies (or gene changes) in populations as a product of differential reproductive success between individuals |
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Term
| 4 simple steps to natural selection (on test) |
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Definition
1) overpopulation
2) inherited genetic variation within the population
3) Those individuals with the “genes” or adaptations most suitable to their environment should survive and reproduce
4) offspring of individuals that reproduced physically resemble their parents |
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Term
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Definition
| intentional (sometimes unintentional) modification of a species by humans which encourage some traits over other traits via breeding. |
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Term
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Definition
| pattern of mating in which individuals mate preferentially with others that look or behave similarly to themselves |
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Term
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Definition
changes in genetic nucleotide sequences due to copying errors or environmental insults
-Genetic mutations are random and frequently lethal. Mutations give rise to new genetic variants in a species. An advantageous mutation may result in differential reproductive success at the individual level and speciation at the population level. |
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Term
| A _________ is a segment of DNA the contains a sequence for a protein |
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Definition
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Term
| _____ is the nucleic acid that contains the genetic information for the development, functioning, and maintenance of all known organisms |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
organisms with no nucleus
These organisms include bacteria and archaea |
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Term
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Definition
organisms with DNA bound within a nucleus
These organisms include animals, plants, fungi and protists |
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Term
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Definition
-In animals, mitochondria possess their own DNA
-In plants, chloroplasts possess their own DNA.
^
Based on this evidence, researchers have proposed the endosymbiotic theory which suggests that mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from bacteria (or bacteria like organisms) and were engulfed by eukaryotes but not digested |
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Term
| 3 Chemical Components of DNA |
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Definition
1) Sugar- 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose)
2) Nitrogenous Base- A- adenine, Cytosine C, Guanine G, Thymine T
3) Phosphate- negatively charged phosphate groups (which give DNA its negative charge) |
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Term
| Physical structure of DNA: |
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Definition
“Backbone” composed of sugars and phosphates
2 Strands “double helix”
Complimentary C=G A=T
Nitrogen bases held together by hydrogen bonds
These bonds break during DNA replication, DNA transcription and when denaturalized by researchers |
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Term
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Definition
| Worked for Watson and Crick and took the first photo of DNA – later died of cancer |
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Term
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Definition
| separates the double helix |
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Term
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Definition
| positively charged proteins that DNA wraps tightly around |
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Term
| where does DNA replication occur>? |
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Definition
| DNA replication occurs in the cell nucleus |
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Term
| DNA can only replicate itself and synthesize proteins from ___ End to the __ End !!! |
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Definition
| DNA can only replicate itself and synthesize proteins from 5’ End to the 3’ End !!! |
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Term
| what do Single stranded DNA binding proteins do? |
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Definition
| Single stranded DNA binding proteins keep the parent DNA strands separate |
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Term
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Definition
gathers the free floating DNA components in the nucleus and replicates the 5’ end (leading strand). Replication for this strand is complete
Remember that the 3’ parent strand must replicate from 5’ end to 3’ end, this makes it slower (the lagging strand)
The lagging strand is replicated via small DNA strands called Okazaki Fragments. |
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Term
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Definition
| lays down an RNA primer on the lagging strand |
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Term
| DNA primase III gathers _______ |
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Definition
| DNA primase III gathers the free floating DNA components and lays down new DNA to compliments the lagging parent strand |
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Term
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Definition
replaces the RNA primers on the lagging strand
after primase 3 does stuff |
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Term
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Definition
| connects the Ozaki Fragments |
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Term
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Definition
| is process by which DNA and RNA create a protein |
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Term
| The process of protein synthesis includes two phases: |
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Definition
The process of protein synthesis includes two phases:
Translation and Transcription |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which the nucleotide sequence on the parent strand of DNA is “read” |
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Term
| Translation (protein synthesis) |
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Definition
| process by which the mRNA molecule converts this sequence (the read sequence) into a polypeptide (i.e. Protein) |
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Term
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Definition
| Single stranded molecules similar to DNA that are responsible to taking DNA messages (DNA nucleotide sequences) from the nucleus of a cell to the ribosome in the cytoplasm and then facilitating translation of this message into a polypeptide (protein). Single stranded “backbone” of sugars nd phosphate |
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Term
| 3 chemical components of RNA |
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Definition
1. Sugar- 5 carbon sugar (ribose) with an extra oxygen atom
2. Nitrogenous Base- Uracil, Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine
3. Phosphate |
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Term
mRNA- messenger RNA
tRNA- transfer RNA |
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Definition
| messenger RNA, transfer RNA |
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Term
| Redundancy phenomenon of amino acids |
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Definition
| There a 64 possible three-letter nucleotide sequences possible 4 to the third power. However there exist only 20 amino acids. Some amino acids are comprised of several nucleotide sequences. This phenomenon is known as redundancy. |
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Term
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Definition
| in total there are 20 amino acids. Some of these amino acids we can synthesize. These are referred to as non-essential amino acids. |
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Term
| 2 broad categories or genetic Mutation: |
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Definition
1- copying areas
2. environmental insults (radioactivity, drinking booze) |
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Term
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Definition
| mutation in which a single base pair is replaced by another (incorrect) base pair. This may alter gene expression |
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Term
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Definition
| the addition of one or more nucleotide base pairs in a sequence. Usually due to the DNA polymerase slipping. |
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Term
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Definition
| mutation in which a part of chromosome or sequence of DNA is missing |
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Term
| HeLa Cells Have a very active version of telomerase an enzyme that prevents the shortening of __________ |
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Definition
telomeres
Telomerase adds telomeric DNA to the ends of chromosomes, thus compensating for the loss of telomeres that occurs as cells divide. |
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Term
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Definition
Point mutation :
Original: the fat cat ate the rat
Point mutation: the fat hat ate the rat
RESULTS:
1. sickle cell anemia
2. thalassemia |
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Term
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Definition
DELETION:
Original: the fat cat ate the rat
Deletion the fat ate the rat
Result:
1. cystic fibrosis |
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Term
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Definition
Original: the fat cat ate the rat
Insertion: the fat eek cat ate the rat.
Results:
1. hemophilia |
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Term
| Frame-shift mutation (one or more bases are inserted or deleted) |
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Definition
Original: the fat cat ate the rat.
Frame shift mutation: the fat caa tet her at.
Examples: duchenne muscular dystrophy |
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Term
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Definition
| (an entire section of DNA is reversed ) |
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Term
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Definition
chemical structure of all species’ DNA is the same. The only difference between individuals is the order of the base pairs. There are so many millions of base pairs in each person’s DNA that every person has a different sequence.
USES: maternity testing, paternity testing, forensics, personal identifications |
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Term
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Definition
| process by which DNA is heated and denatures to form single strands and is then cooled and the double helix re-forms (re-naturation at regions of sequence complementarity. This technique is useful for determining sequence similarity among DNAs of different origins and the amount of sequence repetition within one DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| Procedure by which genetically identical cells or organisms are produced by asexual methods |
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Term
HeLa Cells
Henrietta Lacks (1920-1951) |
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Definition
dies from cervical cancer
-poor, African American tobacco farmer
-mother of 5
George Gey
-cultivates henriettas cells and names the HeLa Cells
-Gey and others were attempting to grow human cells for 30 years
- Gey gave HeLa cells to others, the name HeLa Cells remain unknown for decades
50 million tons of HeLa cells = 150 empire state buildings |
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Term
| The Tuskegee Institute – massive production of HeLa cells |
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Definition
(~6 trillion/ week)
-HeLa Cells were.are the first human cells cultivated for profit
-HeLa are immortal and still used throughout the world
-HeLa cells have been used to understand numerous viruses and were instrumental in the polio vaccine
-HeLa cells have also been used as models to understand cancer and carcinogens
-Researchers sent HeLa cells into space to examine the effects of zero gravity on human cells
Despite the multi billion dollar industry of HeLa cells (1 vial can sell for $10,000), the Lacks family have yet to receive any economic compensations
In fact, her son, David cant afford health insurance and is in $100,000 in debt for a bypass surgery |
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Term
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Definition
| Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences at the ends of all human chromosomes, they contain thousands of repeats of the six nucleotide sequence, TTAGGG |
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Term
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Definition
Once telomere shrinks to a certain level, the cell can no longer divide. Its metabolism slows down, it ages and dies.
Human skin cells divide about 60 times. After 60 divisions, the chromosomes stop acting properly and eventually die this is called the Hayflick limit.
Injected with telomerase, skin cells may experience over 1000 divisions |
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Term
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Definition
| Cancer cells continue to grow and divide when they should not. In most cells, the chromosomes shorten at their ends (telomeres) with each cell division. When those ends become too short, either the cell stops growing or it dies. Cancer cells produce telomerase, which adds DNA sequences (ttaggg) to the telomere, preventing them from shortening. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mutated genes that cause cancer |
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Term
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Definition
| are viruses that may cause cancer. In Humans, that most well known is the human papilloma virus HPV |
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Term
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Definition
| a species that possesses a gene or genes from another species. |
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Term
| Before Mendel, naturalists believed that offspring inherited their physical traits by a process of ___ |
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Definition
| “blending” the mothers and fathers genes. |
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Term
| Gregor Mednel “father of modern genetics” |
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Definition
Augustinian Monk
Conducts experiments on pea plants.
Records his results and uses mathematical applications
Trained physics, chemistry, math, biology
Develops 2 laws in biology
The law of segregation and the law of independent assortment |
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Term
| Pea plants have male and female sexual reproductive organs. They are ___ |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| two houses, individuals of these species exhibit either male or femal sex organs |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| observable physical traits of an individual |
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Term
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Definition
| the genetic constitution of an individual (may or may not be expressed) |
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Term
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Definition
| individuals that possess two different alleles Aa |
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Term
| Filial Generation (F1, F2, F3…) is the |
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Definition
offspring of parents
We are our parents F1 generation |
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Term
| When F1 individuals pollinate, a 3:1 phenotypic ratio is exhibited in the F2 generation. That is 3 individuals will express the dominant allele and 1 will express the recessive. This was found by ______ |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Since Mendel observed plants with recessive traits in the f2 generation, he concluded that blending is not the mechanism for heritable traits.
Mendel hypothesizes that parents carry gene variants (via sperm and egg) and these variants segregate during reproduction
Experiment 2:
The Dyhibrid Cross True bred parents exhibiting 2 (dihybrid different alleles are cross-pollinated. (AABBx aabb). Their offspring self- pollinate and produce f2 generation
There f1 offspring will be heterozygous AaBb for the 2 triats and will exhinit the dominant alleles.
The f1 offspring will produce AB Ab aB and ab gametes
The phenotypic ratio for the dyhybrid cross is 9:3:3:1 |
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Term
| LAW of Independent Assortment |
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Definition
Mendel hypothesize the alleles for pea color and texture and either “linked” or “unlinked”. Linked alleles (or genes) occur on the same chromosome “mix up” more often due crossing over in Meiosis
Mendel found for pea color and pea texture there existed 4 variants. The phenotypic ratio was 9.3.3.1. Mendel reffered to these new pea colors and shapes as recombinant phenotypes
Mendel concludes that the alleles of different genes assort independently of each other during gamete formation. This is the LAW of Independent Assortment
Mendel hypothesize the alleles for pea color and texture are either “linked” or unlinked”. Linked alleles (or genes) occur on the same chromosome are generally inherited together. |
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Term
| 3 Exceptions to Mendel’s Laws: |
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Definition
| Genetic linkage, Incomplete Dominance, Codominance |
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Term
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Definition
This occurs when particular alleles are inherited jointly
When Two or more alleles are found on the same chromosomes they are often inherited together and do not assort independently.
In fruit flies, body color and wing shape are linked. |
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Term
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Definition
In some species the heterozygotes express a “intermediate” between the dominant and recessive allele. This is known as incomplete dominance. If you have a red and white, as f1 and then u take pink f2 and mate it with a white f 1 then you get one pink and one white.
Leopard complex in horses is an example of incomplete dominance. |
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Term
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Definition
| two alleles producing two different phenotypes. Neither allele is dominant nor recessive. vv |
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Term
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Definition
| large macromolecules of DNA found in a cell’s nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
| one of two identical strands of DNA on a chromosome connected by a centromere |
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Term
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Definition
| region of chromosome that connects the sister chromatids. It is the strongest and thinnest region. |
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Term
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Definition
petite arm or small arm of chromosome,
queue or long arm of a chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| ends of chromosomes, comprised of repeat DNA sequences |
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Term
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Definition
| the specific location that an allele lies on a chromosome |
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Term
| The two types of chromosomes- |
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Definition
1. autosomal chromosomes: any chromosome other than a sex chromosome
2. sex chromosomes: chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism |
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Term
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Definition
In the humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 chromosomes in total). 22 pairs are autosomal (44 chromososmeS) and 1 pair are sex chromosomes (2 chromosomes)
Females Posses two X chromosomes written as XX
Males possess one x and one Y written as XY |
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Term
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Definition
| illustration of the number, types and forms of chromosomes in a particular organisms cell. |
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Term
| James Watson and Francis Crick |
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Definition
1953- Discovered the DNA molecule
1962- Receive the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine (with Maurice Wilkins) |
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Term
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Definition
(Interphase)
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
(Cytokinesis)
ip(on)mat |
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Term
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Definition
| the production of sperm cells. Results in 4 haploid sperm cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| the production of an ovum (egg cell). This process results in 1 ovum and 3 smaller polar bodies. Each is haploid, however the polar bodies disintegrate and are absorbed by the body. The end result is 1 haploid ovum. |
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Term
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Definition
Independent Assortment
You can make 8,888,888 different combinations of your mom and dads chromosomes and so can your mate. |
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Term
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Definition
| abnormalities in the number and or structure of chromosomes |
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Term
| Three Broad Categories of Chromosomal Disorders |
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Definition
1. numerical chromosomal disorders
2. structural chromosomal disorders
3. Sex linked Chromosomal disorders |
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Term
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Definition
| a condition which an organism exhibits an incorrect number of chromosomes. |
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Term
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Definition
| presence of only one chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| – presence of a pair of chromosomes (the normal condition in humans, abnormal in other specie) |
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Term
trisomy
tertrasomy
pentasomy |
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Definition
Trisomy- presence of three chromosomes (in humans we observe trisomy 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 21, XXX, XXY, XYY)
Tetrasomy- presence of four chromosomes (in humans we observe XXXX, XXXY, XXYY, XYYY)
Pentasomy- presence of five chromosomes (in humans we observe XXXXX XXXXY XXXYY XXYYY XYYYY) |
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Term
| Most numerical chromosomal disorders are the result of nondisjunction. what is nondisjunction |
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Definition
Nondisjunction refers to the failure of chromosomes to segregate in mitosis or meiosis during Anaphase. The result of nondisjunction is an abnormal number or chromosomes in daughter cells
(the two pairs get packed to one side instead of one on each side) |
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Term
| Monosome C “turners syndrome” |
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Definition
| Monosome C “turners syndrome” envelopes a broad range of disorders. However monosomy X is the most frequent. In these cases a female is born with only one X chromosome. Females with this disorder have menstrual disorders are sometimes sterile. Physical characteristics include webbed necks, feet, and hands at birth and childhood, short statue, obesity, and fluid around the neck. |
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Term
| Trisomy 21 “down’s syndrome’ |
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Definition
| Trisomy 21 “down’s syndrome’ – probably the most common form of mental retardation. Individuals with trisomy 21 can have limited to severe mental retardation. Physically, they exhibit short stature, short necks, broad tongues, and epicanthic skin folds. People suffering from this disorder exhibit sleep apnea, gastrointestinal problems, congenital heart defects, and thyroid problems. |
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Term
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Definition
| Trisomy 13: “patau Syndrome” occurs when a child is born with an extra extra chromosome 13. This disorder leads to severe mental retardation. Physically children with the disorder exhibit scalp and skin disorders, microcephaly, cleft palates, small eyes, eyes that are fused together, extra digits and limb malformations |
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Term
| Klinefelter’s syndrome XXY or XXX |
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Definition
| Klinefelter’s syndrome XXY or XXX occurs when males and females are born with an extra chromosome X. Males are usually sterile, exhibit small genetalia and sometimes develop breast tissue (this is due to increases in hormones). Femlaes with this syndrome are usually normal. |
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Term
Structural Chromosomal Disorders
deletion
duplications
translocation
inversions
chromosomal rings |
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Definition
Structural Chromosomal Disorders
Deletions- loss or deletion of a portion of a chromosome
Duplications – a duplicate of a portion of chromosome that results in extra genetic material
Translocations- occurs when one chromosome breaks and its fragments are incorporated by another chromosome
Inversions- portion of a chromosome is broken and its fragment is reattached “upside down” (inverted)
Chromosomal Rings - chromosomes that form a “ring” after its ends have been lost. The distal end of each arm fuses together. In humans all chromosomes have been observed with this disorder but it primarily occurs with chromosome 13, 14, 15, 20, and X |
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Term
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Definition
| units of 3 nucleotides of DNA that is transcribed by mRNA in transcription |
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Term
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Definition
| small DNA strands that replicate the lagging strand (DNA ligase connects the fragments) |
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Term
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Definition
| cell consisting of 1 copy of each chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| cell consisting of 2 copies of chromosomes (1 maternal and 1 paternal -- one full set) |
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Term
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Definition
| A karyotype (Greek karyon = kernel, seed or nucleus) is the number and appearance of chromosomes in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. The term is also used for the complete set of chromosomes in a species, or an individual organism |
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Term
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Definition
| A centromere is the region of a chromosome that directs its behaviour during cell division |
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Term
| where does protein synthesis take place? |
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Definition
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Term
| sickle cell anemia - the inheritance |
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Definition
| Sickle-cell conditions are inherited from parents in much the same way as blood type, hair color and texture, eye colour, and other physical traits. The types of haemoglobin a person makes in the red blood cells depend on what haemoglobin genes are inherited from his parents. If one parent has sickle-cell anaemia (SS) and the other has sickle-cell trait (AS), there is a 50% chance of a child's having sickle-cell disease (SS) and a 50% chance of a child's having sickle-cell trait (AS). When both parents have sickle-cell trait (AS), a child has a 25% chance (1 of 4) of sickle-cell disease (SS), as shown in the diagram. |
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Term
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Definition
| Microtubules are a component of the cytoskeleton. These rope-like polymers of tubulin can grow as long as 25 micrometers and are highly dynamic. The outer diameter of microtubule is about 25 nm. Microtubules are important for maintaining cell structure, providing platforms for intracellular transport, forming the spindle during mitosis, as well as other cellular processes |
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Term
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Definition
| is one of two or more forms of a gene or a genetic locus (generally a group of genes). |
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Term
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Definition
| is the protein structure on chromatids where the spindle fibers attach during cell division to pull sister chromatids apart. |
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Term
The New Biology: What Price
? Relieving Man's Estate
summary |
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Definition
Referring to Francis Bacon's 17th-century definition of modern science as the conquest of nature "for the relief of man's estate," Kass looks with concern at the ironic possibility that future advances in medical science and technology may lead to the significant diminishing of humankind. Thus he asks, what price will we wind up paying for medical progress? Kass is concerned about the disconnect between modern medicine, with its powers to extend our controls over life and death and over many human potentials, and, on the other hand, traditional social and individual values.
He argues particularly for serious consideration of values in three areas: (1) distributive justice (which for Kass is, finally, the question as to who shall do the distributing), (2) the "use and abuse of power" (in which he focuses on the process by which power over nature becomes turned into power of some humans over others), and (3) "voluntary self-degradation and dehumanization" (two major concerns being the concept of the optimum baby and the development of technologies of pleasure). |
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Term
| the stem cell challenge (reading) |
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Definition
The possibility of replacing or regenerating failing body parts with new tissues derived from stem cells has provoked hope, controversy and conflicting scientific claims.
Embryonic stem cells offer primordial potential, but scientists are still struggling to understand and control them. Stem cells in the adult body may be easier to marshal for some tasks, but their true origin and range of abilities are still unresolved.
Many hurdles, both scientific and political, remain before stem cell treatments can be widely applied to patients. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The suffix -ase is used in biochemistry to form names of enzymes |
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Term
| Curse and blessing in the ghetto |
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Definition
| The article is entitled Curse and Blessing of the Ghetto ' In this article , the author talks about a genetic disease , called the Tay-Sachs disease , which common to Jews of Eastern European decent . The author urges us to learn more about the disease and to finally be able to conquer it . In addition , learning more about the Tay-Sachs disease may also help us to eventually learn more about other genetic diseases and finally find a way to cure them |
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Term
Why Genes Don’t Count (for Racial Differences in Health) Alan H. Goodman, PhD
summary |
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Definition
| There is a paradoxical relationship between "race" and genetics. Whereas genetic data were first used to prove the validity of race, since the early 1970s they have been used to illustrate the invalidity of biological races. Indeed, race does not account for human genetic variation, which is continuous, complexly structured, constantly changing, and predominantly within "races." Despite the disproof of race-as-biology, genetic variation continues to be used to explain racial differences. Such explanations require the acceptance of 2 disproved assumptions: that genetic variation explains variation in disease and that genetic variation explains racial variation in disease. While the former is a form of geneticization, the notion that genes are the primary determinants of biology and behavior, the latter represents a form of racialization, an exaggeration of the salience of race. Using race as a proxy for genetic differences limits understandings of the complex interactions among political-economic processes, lived experiences, and human biologies. By moving beyond studies of racialized genetics, we can clarify the processes by which varied and interwoven forms of racialization and racism affect individuals "under the skin." |
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