1. Obain sufficient numbers of founders

2. Expand the population as rapidly as possible (minimize allele loss-but avoid over successful breeder high representation)

3. Stabilize population size at carying capacity (managment phase)

-records should be as complete as possible without inventing data to fill in missing info.

-missing data = it can be useful to make analytical versions of the studbook where documentated assumptions replace missing or unknown data, but these should never be transferred into the official studbook

the science of vital statistics such as the number of animals, thier growth in numbers, density, distribution, births and deaths

-zoo demographic managment goals differ depending on species but generally = estabilish a stable population of sufficient size to mitigate the risks of extinction or extirpation

-others could be to reduce at predictable/sustainable rate

-Okapi discovered 1901

-top heavy = decreasing population

-bottom heavy = growing population

What demographic data shows a progression toward instability in the population? 

(think age pyramids in part)

-Large discrepancies in sex ration/age classes/life history stages

-inappropriate sex ratio for polygamous/group housed species

-few individuals in the youngest age class

-too few individuals in the reproductive age class

-large number of individuals in the oldest age class

-females may need to be bred early in life to ensure future fertility

-for species held at capacity, zoos may only receive one breeding recommendation every 12-15 years (what if staff has changed, then there is training time)

-collective knowledge about breeding and husbandry must be adequately disseminated to institutions without  first-hand experience (passing on the knowledge)

-display animals, manage only to limit inbreeding depression but not for maintaining evolutionary diversity

-species existing only in captivity, require the most robust management plans

X goal to minimize reliance on capture of wild born animals

-similar to actuarial tables for life insurance

-shows vital rates for each age class, males and females generally shown separately

-allow identification of age specific patterns of mortality/fecundity (11% in first year for okapi)

-for particular age class having less than 30 individuals, the rates should be used with caution

-growth rate, can also be calculated from life table

(grow, shrink and how fast/how much)

(make changes over time)

-calculate target population size

-calculate desired  growth rate

-calculate number births/breeding pairs needed (look at chance of success among individuals)

-incoporate founder/genetic information

AI and embryo flushing

can preserve gametes essentilly indefinitely (ensure founders' alleles are preserved or assist with difficult breeders)

Taxonomic Advisory Groups

develop and implement regional collection plans (RCPs) (species/subspecies) that can be referred to by participating zoos/aquaria

compliance currently ~ 50%

-regional planning -> allows zoos to more effectively use resources to benefit endangered taxa

North America, Europe, Australasia

species survival plan

-programs to provide intensive genetic and demographic management, including the maitenance of studbooks

-all AZA (association of zoos and aquariums) members holding species under SSP management are required to comply with management protocols

Population Management Plan

-programs provide breeding/transfer recommendations for populations in need of more moderate management the goal is t enhance sustainablility but unlike SSP, compliance is not mandatory

species survival plan to population managment plan...

over 35 of the giraffes (half the populatin in North America) transfered out of the AZA populaton

(japan really likes thier giraffes)

animals not needed for goals of a program

-result through overproduction (baby animal appeal) or the change of management goals

-culling: not good for business

-selling excess: could get undesirable welfare or reintroduction to AZA program later down road without records 

-regional retirement centers

-contraception

-regional planning

-reintroduction not always possible

release of captive or wild-caught animals to suitable site within their natural range, specifically to reestablished a viable population in an area from which the species has been extirpated

-can be complex and expensive regarless of species

antelope

myth of unicorn attribute to the taxon

originally ranged across Near East

adaped to desert/near-desert habitat

wide-ranging (60 miles/day)

hunted for meat/ medicinal purposes, hides

oil money, motorized vehicles/firearms contributed to extirpaton of the species by 1972

1962 Operation Oryx (2 males/ 1 female) additional animals contributed by kuwaiti royalty -> phoenix zoo

one of first captive breeding programs

now numbers in 6000-7000 in zoos, private game ranches, etc

first species to go in status from extint in wild o endangered to vulnerable

1980 first reintroduction back to wild

Oman, Saudi Arabia, Israel, United Arab Emirates, Jordan, etc

now protected as matter of national pride

one of most successful stories in zoo history

as threats to wild population increase, more wild indiviuals should be captured and maintained in zoos

if wild population drops below 20 females, all remaining animals should be captured

as populatin size in the wild/captivity become smaller, the number that should be captured for captive breeding should increased

-retain genetic diversity

-attempt ot recreate wild conditions?

-minimizing variance in repro success and founder contributions will help prevent artificial selection for captive conditions

1-capture wild animals to found captive population (founders will be less than number of animals captured)

cheetah: 422 captured - 83 founders by 2004

-ART/AI improving rates

2-growth of captive population (rapid growth rate retains more gene diversity in long term, unless Pan Pan)

3-Maintaining a self-sustaining population of captive animals during harvest of animals (weigh importance of each animal)

A: select individuals from overly-represented lineages for release; when a stable wild population exists release less represented individuals (could cause inbreeding problems)

-smaller loss of gene diversity benefit captive population

-greater number available for release benefit to release population

(individuals most related to captive population)

B: select individuals from less represented lineages (less inbreeding depression, but riskier because important animals may have less reproductive success in wild)

-Captive population suffers greater loss of gene diversity

-smaller inbreeding risk and more evolutionary potental for released population

-smaller number available for release

(individuals least related to captive population)

-captive populatins present greater biosecurity challenge than translocated wild animals

-animals of unknown or poor health should not be used

-reintroduction using wild-born animals are generally much more effective than those using captive born stock

-computer modeling may help decide which animals to release (examine/predict population dynamics)

-animals with valuable genetic backgroudn will be better off being maintained in captivity where they beneifit from care and will likely produce more

population tables can be used to predict # animals that can sustainably be released

animals with altered behavior will require more individuals to be released

captive reared individuals may be less able to survive/reproduce than wild born

tradeoff between the number and the survival of offspring

-R-selected organisms reproduce early and abundantly, but few offspring survive to maturity, and they get little parental care

(rabbits)

-K-selected organisms: produce fewer offspring but a larger proportion survive due to greater parental care over a long period of time

(humans)

-prolonged juvenile stage

-releasing adults may result in faster growth of the wild population

-if adults more philopatric (stay in 1 area) than juveniles, relsease of adults may increase change of success

-when behavior of juveniles improves survivorship (learning experiences during development important) = release younger animals

subspecies of grey

over-split into spurious subspecies, genetics supports Mexican wolf subspecies, smaller than other North American wolves

Northern Mexico and US southwest

intensive efforts to eradicate by governments (livestock)

-1950s gone from wild in US

-last 5 caught 1980

-today >300 in zoos

-1998 re-release in Arizona/New Mexico

-over half shot, then a quarter natural (starvation)

only 44% of bird/mammal translocations classified as successful

-11% were classified as successful when using captive stock

as a science

surveys of pertinent literature, interdisciplinary participation, formulations of testable hypotheses/goals, thorough documentation, rapid publications of results, independent reviews of the program

No

IUCN/SSC RSG guidelines state otherwise

-relatvively recent invention

-public more concerned with individual than population

-zoos can support conservation by allowing scientists to study biology of wild animals in a controlled environment

-educate the public

-balance wants of public with needs of individual species

-historically less focused on peer-reviewed publications than universities

-not all practices (enrichmetn/habitat design) based on solid scientific principles

-physical

-mechanical

-chemical (drugs)

-behavioral (training)

saftey

minimize unwanted visual/acoustic stimuli

sensitivity of animal to voice/body language cues of people

communicating the goal of restraint to all staff

know species and animal (behavior, disposition, experience with restraint)

weather

planing for potential emergencies

release and recovery after

make part of design of new zoos

depend on average size/temerment

6 categories that are somewhat arbitrary

less than 11 lbs (5kg)

not carnivor or primates

-rabbit, monotremes, oppossum, insectivores, bats, etc

gloved hand restraint, anesthesia box (chemical)

safety: size dependent: stress, escape injury, venom, scales, spines, teeth

training possible to enter crates

most hoofstock

aardvark and ungulates

antelope, camels, pigs, deer, quieds, tapirs

mechanial restraint primary, chutes, but other possible

safety: approach with care, especially if aggressive species

use husbandry training in conjuction with other methods, head must be above rumen to avoid regurgitation/choking

beware capture myopathy (death due to over-exertion/stress)

hand restraint after transfer to small padded stall, one animal and single handler, scoop and support midsection, restrain forelimbs and head with one hand, hind limbs and flanks with other

saftey: major concern, just enough force to restrain, no nets, horns, hooves, teeth. after chemical restraint isolate in dark quiet transfer crate till recover

training to enter crate, no part of handler clothing to catch animal legs

nets, transport crates/kennels; chmical for other than simplest procedures. Borderline for physical restraint

Safety: aggressive fighters, bite, agile, react quickly, lose skin

trained to enter crates/kennels

chemical, typically following mechanical in remote/protected queeze chutes

saftey: airway may become compromised, polarbears may fake anesthesia response

husbandry training reduces stress and helps drug administration. have escape route planned ... recovery airway issues/breathing difficulties

disease transmition

hand restraint and nets, agile, fast, difficult to net, hand restraint requires cloves, trained staff only

Safety: animal inury risk higher, disease risk high

high dexterity in both hands and feet

physical restraint very difficult, hand restraint very dangerous to both. Mechanical squeeze systems along with training alleviates stress

safety: animal injury risk higher, disease risk high

due to speices inteligence/stress, avoid involuntary mechanical restraint. Routines must be carefully followed since animals can tell the difference between training and real restraint. During recovery, confine in area that does not allow climbing

large bovine etc...

mechanical restraint primary. specialized handkong and restraint devices. Must be performed with cooperaion and sometimes chemical restraint

safety: greater risk for animal than staff, if modern mechanical restrain is used

husbandry training is critical. Most restraint devices limit space available for retreate, rather than press physically on animals. Width of chutes must be set before animal enters and should be method of quick release if animal becomes excitable

marine

cetaceans: whales/dolphins

sirenians: manatees/dugon

pinnipeds: seals/sea lions/walruses

avoid physical restraint (difficult in water) remove from water through husbandry training, nets/slings, partially draining tank

safety: overheating/respiratory distress major concerns. Voluntary breathers so chemical immobilization especially risky...avoid bitting and manatee pinnings

husbandry/training essential

there are few universal principles

few published guidelines

a need for scientific analyses and approaches

long-term: outcome desired, animals comfortable with new living space/husbandry, with minimum stress

short-term:along the way familiarize/acclimate to new facility, habituate to new husbandry, desensitize to stressors (visitors, noise, animals in nearby enclosures). Keeper input critical becuase they will know the individual

considerations: predator (hide) vs Prey (flight), territorial, dominant, shy, previouse exposure to hotwire, initial increase in staff needed?

name team leader

trailed in negative reinforcerments

evaluate succes based on time or behavioral criteria

vets, security, videographer, if previous habituation of animals (or if out of view)

multiple inspections, barriers etc.

no visitors for horticulural or maitenenace till after intorductory phase

use of environmental enrichments or familure cues

rewards/treats for staying calm or after returning to holding area

Hotwires: electric fencing etc are working and well marked if animal is unfamilure

min one month +

avoid carring out during extreme temps

early morning best (temp/noise/visitors)

keepers first then a monitor for whole exposure tiem

watch for stress signs

rescue/equiptment handy

free access to holding facility

feed only off exhibit first (encourages to return)

end long before staff go home

dont add stressors till after acclimation

discuss plan/changes daily = flexability

less successful than physical introductions

know species

dominance relationships/mating systems

old world monkey (introduce female to male first as ally before introduction to other females)

first intro to calm tempered individuals if possible

new male temp: aggressive intro to dominant female, if timid intro to subordinate female

territorial: introduce to enclosure while other animals are not there

meet through scent or sound first

some species may drive out individuals that then cannot later be returned

use barriers

exception those animals drawn to tactile interactions: barrier counterproductive because increases stress: ottors/meerkats

allow meeting to occur in less aggressive individuals enclosure

may intro to subset of individuals

careful not to disrupt dominance hierarchies

short sessions then longer ones, end when animals voluntarily separate

daily even on weekends

house overnight only after individuals show normal positive interactions

best document for adult great apes

similar to social intro steps, but may be longer

socially normal individuals serve as teachers, young teach elders how to play

Mothers deficient in maternal skills can be house with proficient mothers to learn skills-if compatable species/aggression

infant cues may be provided to mother and behaviral reinforcement

androgens

like testosterone

only in mammals do the testes descent from the abdominal cavity into a scrotum, but there are exceptions

exceptions: no migration  or migration to caudal abdominal cavity: elephants, sloths, elephant shrews etc

stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete both FSH and LH

males FSH stimulates spermatogenesis by action on Setoli cells in seminiferous tubules of testis while LH stimulates Leydig cells to synthesize androgens - circulating androgens have negative feedback

-testis size can be an indicator of reproductive status

-testosterone alone can maintain spermatogenesis

overweight can increase sperm abnormalities (increased temp likely factor)

photoperiod (SCN-internal clock)

temperature extremes

nutrition (suppress LH)

production of pheromones/vomernasal organ

solitary speciees house in groups (even if not crowded) = high cortisol

social species = isolation depression

stress lowers repro especially chronic

secretory phase in primates

diestrous in ungulates

unilateral or bilateral lack of testicular descent

maned wolves, jaguares, florida panthers

most species one descended testicle is enough for fertility but trait is heritable

no

ciruculating testosteorone has corelated positively with seminal quality in many species but does not necessarily produce better quality ejaculate

sexual activity ffects semen quality so males should be isolated 3-7 days prior to examination

certain common sedatives relax the urethral musculature and cause urine contamination

viable spermatozoa can be obtained up to 72 hours after death/castration by recovery from epididymis//ductus vas deferens

computer assisted semen analysis

provide objective indicies of sperm motility percentages, swimming curvature/speed, linear progression, and morphology

very expensive

high temperatures = oligozoospermia (low sperm concentrations) for as long as 5 weeks

nutritional deficites (alter LH and testosterone)

endocrine disorders

feeding/environmental toxins

karyotpe abnormalities (XY)

inbreeding

structural abnormalities

enzyme immunoassays

use antibodies to the substance being detected, with a detectable label bound to the antibody

more suitable to zoos than RIAs

Radioimmunoassays

similar to EIAs but the label is radioactive material

less suitable to zoo settings

sensiticity

precision (same result)

accuracy (what expected)

specificity (specific)

steroids can be unevenly distribued so need to homogenize sample priior to assay

physiological: blood test "gold standard"

Hormonal: stress from sampling blood will change hormone profiles so use feces sampling instead