(working definition)

...

essential (usually in minute amounts) for normal phsiological functions (maintenance, growth, development, production)

Organic compound distinct form fats, carbohydrates and proteins

...

not synthesized by animals in adequate amounts to meet normal physiological needs

no some vitamins are only vitamins to certains species (C and choline)

C to guinie pigs

and some are only under specific environmental conditions

vit D and niacin

Vitamer: different chemical compounds that show the same biological activity

(tocopherols and tocotrienols-vit E)

compound that can be metabolized to yield a vitamin

(carotenoids to vit A)

catalysts in metabolism

(B-vit)

small organic non-protein molecule that carries chemical groups between enzymes

...

Vitamins

destruction of free radicals

Vit E and C

non-protein chemical element that is bound tighhtly to an enzyme and is required for catalysis

minerals

A

D

E

K

C

B (All of them)

B1-Thiamin

B2-Riboflavin

B3-Niacin

B5-Pantothenic acid

B6-Pyridoxine

B7-Biotin

B9-Folate

B12-Cobalamins?

Retinol-vitamer (visual cycle-production of rhodopsin-pigment used in low light-rod cells of eye)

Retinal-aldehyde

Retinol-alcohol

Retinoic acid-acidic form

Retinyl esters-esters of all trans retinol

(no carotenoids-provitamins)

B-Carotene (carrots convert to vit A)-conversion varies by and within species

Beta carotene levels in milk are positively related to milk fat %

Cats cannot convert

unstable in presence of oxygen and acids

fresh Alfalfa is a good source (100% A activity)

international units

standardized measure of biological activity (or effect) of a compound

Maintenance of mucous membrane

vision->retinaol+opsin=rhodopsin (pigment used in low light)

Growth and differentiation of cells-proper bone growth (enlargement of foramen for optic nerve)

Glycoprotein synthesis

reproduction hatchability of eggs as well as mamal repro

corticosterone synthesis deficiency=atrophy of adrenal gland

immune function deficiency=reduced immune response

cod liver oil

liver

egg yolk

butter

carrots

sweet potato

spinich

pumpkin

Kale

Yellow corn-only grain with vit A activity

extremely common worldwide

atrophy adrenal gland

reduces immune response

night blindness

dry eye (Xerophthalmia)

Keratinization of respiratiory epithelium

death

Hypervitaminosis A

roughened hair coat

scaly skin

hyperirritability and sensitivity to touch

blood in urine and feces

loss control of legs and inability to rise

periodic tremors

cats get it from eating liver or organ meats

Deforming Cervical Spondylosis (syndrome) bony exostoses outgrowths to develop along muscular insertions of cervical vertebrae and long bones of forelimbs

sunlight

most foods contain it in small amounts

fortification of vit D has become widespread

Ergocalciferol D2-plant form

Cholecalciferol D3-animal form

tightly regulated and tissue specific metabolism (skin,liver,and kidney)

vit D2=vit D3 in all species but poultry which require D3

stored in liver-three month max

in bone causes mobilization of Ca

Kidney-involved in calcium conservation

increases phosphorus reabsorption

disturbance of calcium and phosphorus

insifficient bone calcification and proliferation of ephyseal cartilage-rib/vertebra fracture

low plasma-calcium, magnesium, and inorganic phosphorus levels

elevated serum alkaline phosphatoase

Rickets-soft bones in young animals

osteomalacia-adult animals soft bone due to decreased mineral content

subclinical signs=reduced growth, milk production, egg production, reptroductive performance

cod liver oil

egg yolk

beef liver

alfalfa sun cured

mushrooms uv-irradiated

Most Toxic of all vit

reduced feed intake (anorexia)

reduced growth rate

reduced liver weight

excess calcium in blood (hypercalcemia)

reduced weights of the radius and ulna

calcification of the aorta, heart, kidney, and lung

dehydration, vomiting, fatigue

exists in light yellow oils in pure form

8 forms (4 tocopherols, 4 tocotrienols)

most common alpha-tocopherol

gamma-tocopherol

antioxidant->easily oxidized (in presence of minerals and PUFA)

cereal grain

wheat germ oil

alfalfa

vegetable oils

animal fat

protection of vit A

prevent oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids

interrelated with selenium

protect cell and mitochondrial lipid membrane

meat quality-supplementations in excess of requirement used to extend shelf life of pork and poultry...maintains color, and prevents off-flavors

One of the LEAST toxic vitamins

nutritional muscular dystrophy (cardiomyopathy)

mulberry heart disease (pig)

stiff lamb disease

white muscle disease (calf)

degeneration of nerve cells in chick

vascular system

hemolysis red blood cells

reproductive system

males-inhibit spermatogenesis

females-fetal resorption

(EMND) equine motor neuron disease-spontaneous, somatic/lower motor neurons-spinal cord and brain

effected by intake of

selenium

unsaturated fatty acids

antioxidants (ethoxyquin BHA, BHT)

tissue reserves

cholesterol-depletion study in chicks lead to find

synthesized by bacterial in the digestive tract

least amount of storage in body of fat-soluble vitamins b/c of above so no realy toxicity (well tolerated)

K1 phyloquinone-natural green vegtables

K2 menaquinone natural processed

K3 menadione sythesized most water soluble complexed to make soluble (MSB, MSBC, MNB, MPB)

blood coagulation-spelled with K by germans

4vit k dependent coagulation

Factor II - prothrombin

abnormal due to k deficiency, presense of competative inhibitor anti-vit

Dicoumarol-spoiled sweet clocer-fatal hemorraging in cattle

warfarin-rat poison

liver prevented from producing prothrombin

Factor VII - proconvertin

Factor IX - christmas factor

Factor X - stuart-prower factor

bioavailability (K2 most bioavailable)

level dietary fat

used antibiotics

microbial sythesis in gut

exposure/consumption of feces (coprophagy) in rabbits not dogs

highly tolerated-non toxic

green leafy veggies

liver

egg

fish meal

unstable when exposed to UV light

reacts strongly in Mallard-type reactions (burning toast)

thiamin pyrophosphate TPP coenzyme

decarboxylation of alpha-keto acids

pyruvate-> acetyl CoA

one of 5 required for proper pyruvate dehydroenase activity

decarboxylation of alpha-keto acids improtant for dreb cycle

alpha ketoglutarate->succinyl-CoA

tryptophan--> niacin (NAD) -cat unable to convert tryptophan to niacin so has high requirement

yeast, yeast extracts, pork-all high levels

cereal grains (whol grain better b/c found in outer hull)

us requred processed flour to be fortified with thiamin mononitrate,niacin, riboflavin, folic acid and iron(ferrous)

Beriberi (human wasting disease)

dry-wasting and partial paralysis due to peripheral nerve damage

wet-weakening of capillary walls of heart, causes edema in peripheral tissues

polyneuritis in poultry (same as above)

general

loss of appetite

emaciation (increase pyruvate+lactic acid=muscular weakness) (decrease acetyl CoA and lipogenesis (fat synthesis))

slowing of heart rate

lowering of body temp

progressive dysfunction of nervous tissue (brain) ion specific pump Na+-K+ ATPase (decreased ATP synthesis)

impared nerve function

polioencephalomalacia-polio or stargazing

causes by rumen environment which destroys thiamin or inhibits thiamin production

wasting gray matter

foods feeds containing thiaminase activity (rument environment destryoing thiamin)

raw fish from certain species

horses-braken fern

greatly increase requirement

breks methyl bridge

ribo-ribose

imparts yellow color on vitamin premixes

pure supplementation turns urine fluorescent yellow

component of flavoproteins and coenzymes FMN and FAD

oxidation-reduction FMN-FMNH2 and FAD-FADH2

converstion retinal to retinoic acid

electron transport chain

cereal grain poor source

biological materials

synthesized by plants, yeasts, fungi and most bacteria

yeast, liver, milk, green leafy vegetables crops all good sources

most common dietary deficiency but rarely see symptoms (general)

poor growth

diarrhea (secondary to impaired nutrient absorption)

eye abnormalities

hair loss and dermatitis

"curled toes paralysis" in young chicks

active form Nicotinamide

component of both coenzymes: NAD and NADP

oxidation-reduction reactions

involved in carbohydrate, lipid and animo acid metabolism

synthesized from troptophan (12 steps) very slow rate so supplement still needed

animal proteins (beef, egg, milk)

corn low source but also contain niacinogen binds niacin

cereal grain contain

niacin-carbohydrate or -protien complexes

Niacin 80-90% available this way

general symptoms

poor growth, diarrhea secondary to nutrient absoption

Pellagra in humans-disease of 4 Ds

diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia and death

hair loss and necklace lesions

black tongue in dogs

at high doses 1000-2000mg

reverse atherosclerosis (hardening of arteries)

reduce cholesterol, TAG, VLDL, and LDL

at very high doses (1.5-6g)can be toxic

skin flush, dry, rash, eczema

maculopathy (thinkening of macula and retinal)

acute toxic reactions

occurs as pyridoxine, pyridosamine, and pyridoxal

Metabolically active is pyridoxal phosphate

glycogen-glucose (over half of B6 in body involved in this but over 140 B6 dependent activites in body)

coenzyme in macronutrien metabolism

amino acid catabolism, gluconeogenesis, biosythesis of sphingolipids

synthesis of neurotransmitters, histaminem hemoglobin

virtually all foods (yeast, liver,egumes, cereal grains, vegetaables)

plant sources:pyridoxine stable

animal sources pyridoxal and pyridoxamine not as stable

commercial form pyridoxine HCL hydrochloride very stable

general (poor growth, dermatitis, and hyperirritability)

muscular wekness and animia

infertility, fetal malformation

insulin insufficiency (reduced pancreatic synthesis causes)

free biotin not very stable

found in bioctin (amide complex of biotin and lys)

essential component of certain carboxylase enzymes

involved in both carboxylation and decarboxylation reactions

most biotin function occur in the mitochondria

coenzyme in many reactions

Carboxylases in TCA cycle/gluconeogenesis

biotin-dependent carboxylase in lipid metabolism

deamination reactions

few foods/feeds good sources

animal products and fermentation by products

egg yolk, yeast, milk, kidney, liver

plant sources, oilseed meals (soybean)

wide variability in bioavailability is concern

avidin-glycoprotein secreated by mucosa of oviduct in hen

into white or albuminous of the egg

strongly binds (stronges in nature)

high affinity bond used for biochemical assays in lab

cannot be hydrolyzed by enzymes in body

heating or cooking breaks bond (100 C)

presnet in egg yolk (not bound to avidin) to protein with lower affinity)

general (poor growth, dermatitis and hair loss (alopecia)

impaired lipid and energy metabolism

cracked pads and feet

pantothen - greek everywhere

quite stable

usually in bound form acetyl CoA and acyl carrier protein

required for synthesis of Coenzyme A (CoA) that is involved in add and loss 2 C units (Acyl group transfer) and synthesis/oxidation fatty acids

component of fatty acid synthase multi-enzyme complex (most species)

requried for synthesis of fatty acids, cholesterol and acetylcholine

most feed/food

liver especially chiken and pork, heart, egg yolk, yeast, molasses, whole grain, wheat bran and peanuts

general (poor growth, secondary diarrhea, dermatitis, hair loss (alopecia)

chickens most susceptible

goose-stepping gait in pigs and other nervous system disorders

greek foliu-leaf

free folate (not natural)

dihydrofolate (DHF)

Tetrahydrofolate (THF)

carrier methy groups that are added to or removed from aa, purines, polyamines, etc

tetrahdydrofolate-essential coenzyme in synthesis of thymidylic acid (thymine, DNA)

purine synthesis (adenine and guanine)

initiation of translation (protein synthesis) formylmethionine

leafy materials, cereal grains and extract oilseed meals, and animal protein meals

processing reomoves most from cereal grain

riches source-liver (beef/chicken), brewer's yeast

mandatory fortification of breads, cereals, flours, pastas, rices in US

reduced biosynthesis of DNA/RNA

reduced cell division

before pregnancy consumption important to prevent spina bifida in humans

general (poor growth, reduced feed intake, dermatitis and hair loss)

anemia (impaired erythropoiesis)

Leucopenia (reduced white blood cells)

imparts deep red color

class of vitamers (methycobalamin, adenosylcobalamin)

not synthesized by plants or animals

good source includes bone meal, fish meal and whey

synthesized by only a few species of microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts or algae)

Cobalt is required for synthesis (part of structure)

ruminants requrire cobolt, non-ruminants only B12 since dont have adequate microflora in small intestine/hindgut

(IF) intrinsic factor required for absorption (secreted by gastric mucosa-parietal cells) to active transport in intestine, only essential function of stmach-otherwise B12 would not be absorbed (small intestion diffusion 1%)

large amounts of B12 produced in hindgut

B12 absorbed directly from hindgut

synthesis of labile methyl groups (prevention of anemia)

glucoe synthesis-very important in ruminants (liver)

ultimately, b12 is from microbial origin

animal product (liver)

fermentation by-products

supplement necessary if diets solely on vegetable ingredients

general (weight loss, wasting, listlessness)

mild anemia

decrease growth and feed intake

nervous system disorders-uncoordinated and unsteady posture

limited methy group availability (for synthesis of phosphatidyl choline) increases fat deposition in liver, hear, kidneys

malabsorption is inherited disorder

normal nutrient absorption occurs with exceptoion of B12

oral administratioon of B12 not effective

long term treatment

regular intramuscular injection (every 4-5 months)

ascorbic acid

only some animals have a requirement

guine pig and india animals

exists because these species lack one specific enzyme (L-gulonolactone)

reduced form is present in foods

easily destroyed in oxidation (heat, exposure to air, and in the presence of minerals or oxidative enzymes

only stored in body to limit

needs regularly provided

essentially non-toxic

linus Pauling advocated megadoses

(can cause kidney stones in men)

...

function:

formation of collagen (requires synthesis of hydroxyproline from proline)

connective tissue: bone, teeth, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, fibrous matricies of skin and blood vessels

antioxidantincreases absorption of iron by reducing from Fe³⁺
to Fe²⁺

scurvy

fragile capillaries, leading to hemorrhage

swollen, bleeding and ulcerated gums

loose teeth

skin leasions

weak bones

Anemia

related to activation of folic acid

reduced absorption of iron

synthetic forms relatively inexpensive

citrus fruits, many vegetables are good sources

(most) bell pepper-strawberry-orange (least)

supplement to livestock may help with heat stress

essential nutrient for humans

quaternary saturated amine, typically fed as choline chloride in animals nutrition

deficiency is rare

widely distributed in foods/feeds and can be dervided from methionine

typically supplement in diets of rapidly growing animals

often misnamed aa--actually sulfonic acid

cats can't synthesize

causes CRD-central retinal degeneration

and feline dilated cardiomyopathy

need all 7 in large quantities

Cations

Ca, Mg, Na, K

anions

P,Cl,S

need 10 in trace amounts

Mn, Fe, Cu, I, Se, Zn, F, Co, Mo

new (not on exam)

Sn, Ni, Si, V, Cr

constituent of skeletal structure (macro Ca, P, and Mg)

maintain osmotic pressure (macro Na, K, Mg)

regulateion of acid-base balance

component or activator of enzymes or compounds involved in biochemical reactions

selenium-glutathionin peroxidase

iron-hemoglobin

Ca²⁺ Mn²⁺ Mg²⁺ -cofactors, enzyme activators

iodine-thyroid hormone

cobalt-cyanocobalamin

copper-bytochrome C oxidase

aluminum (Al), Antimony (Sb), Lead (Pb) and Mercury (Hg)

found in bone and can accumulate

essential: Cu, Mo, Se, F, Si

potentially essential: As, Cd

nonessential: Pb, Hg-very toxic in high amounts

urine (absorbed)

feces (absorbed and non)

sweat (Na and Cl)

routes to elimination of excess absorbed minerals:

bile, pancreatic juice, and direct secretion into large intestine

species/breed

rate of growth (fast=high requirement)

physiological state (lactation, eggs laying)

chemical form of mineral (organic vs inorganic)

level of oter mineral (interactions between Cu and Zn)

calcium carbonate (limestone) cheap

Dicalcium phosphate (dical) more available

animal sources: fish meal, meat and bone meal, milk products

plant sources:roughages are rich, cereal grains products are poor sources

structural in bone and teeth (99% body Ca)

bone: major storage of Ca and P

remaining 1% in soft tissues (cells and intracellular fluid)

enzyme activation

blood clotting - circlating Ca

permeability of cell membrane

impulse transmission at the neuromuscular junction - circulating Ca

muscle contraction

electrolystes (acid base balance) - circulating Ca

regulated by: low calcitonin, high parathyroid hormone, and high active form of Vit D (1,25-(OH)2D)

P and Mg can produce deficiency symptoms as well

same deficency as vit D including reduced growth

Rickets (young animals)

misshapen bones, enlarged joints, lameness, stiffness

Osteomalacia: mature animals, softening of bone due to lack of calcification

Osteoporosis: Ca and P are not typically deficient

women after menopause

absence vit D

low Ca intake

low P intake

abnormal Ca:P ration

high fat diet, Ca soap formation

High requirement during pregnancy and lactation

milk fever

occurs in high-producing animals 12-72 hrs post calving

blood Ca drops

normal 8.5-10, hypocalcemic 2-7mg/dL

animal souces: meat and bone meal, fish meal

low in roughages but high in concentrates

...

commercial sources:

dicalcium phosphate (dical)

Ca²⁺ replaces 2 protons

monocalcium phosphate (monocal)

Ca²⁺ replaces 1 proton

defluorinated rock phosphate (F removed)

large portion of phosphorus in plant sources is present as unavailable in form

phytates are salts of phytic acid: Ca, Mg, Cu, Zn, etc

in soybean meal, canola meal, sunflower meal, linseed meal and cereal grains

availablility ranges from 30-90% and diets must be formulated around the availability

enzyme (phosphatase) required to liberate phosphorus from phytate molecule

commercial phytase is available, generally produced in bacterial and funci

some plants have high intrinsic phytase activity (wheat products)

use of total phosphorus is adequate

bacterial and fungal phytases produced in the rumen

similar to calcium (part of hydroxyapatite)

acid-base balance (HPO₄-)

carbohydrate metabolism(phosphorylated intermediates)

allosteri regulator of many enzymes (not at the active site)

phospholipids (lecithin/phosphatidylcholine)

DNA, RNA, ATP, ADP

symptoms similar to Ca and vit D deficiency

rickets and osteomalacia

conditon known as pica also know ans depraved appetite

expecially a concern in tropical/subtropical areas (soil deficient in P)

also concern as feeding strategies shift to minimizing enviromental impact

after Ca and P potassium is the next most abundant mineral in the body

2/3 of K in skin and muscle

grain (.3-.8%)

animal products (.3-2%)

vegetable protein (1-2.5%)

content in plants is generally high (alfalfa > 2%)

excess K can be a problem for dairy cows fed alfalfa

activator or cofactor in enzyme systems (Na+/K+ pump)

carbonic andydrase)

salivary amylase

osmotic balance

tranmission of nerve impulses

acid-base balance (cation/anion balance)

rare (must be induced)

reduced appetite

decreased growth, weakness, tetany (form lock jaw), degeneration of vital organs, nervoius disorders, diarrhea

plants and plant products are poor sources

animal products are good sources (meat meals, meat and bone meal)

especially those of arine origin: fish meal

usual practice is to supplement diets with salt

.3-.5% diet

or free choice

salt, salt+iodine, salt + all trace minerals

osmotic balance

absorption of carbhydrates and aa (Na+/K+ pump)

transmission of nerve impulses

during lactation (Na+ and Cl- secreated in milk)

rapidly growing animals expecial when fed cereal/or forage based diets

under tropical conditions (Na+ loss in sweat) and in hard working animals

decreased osmotic pressure=dehydration (weakness)

poor growth

pica or salt graving

licking of wood, soil, or sweat of other animals

loos of appetite, decreased growth, unthrifty appearance, reduced milk production, weight loss

closely associated with Na+

functions:

regulation of osmotic pressure

HCl gastric juice-protein digestion

Pancreatic juice, bile, intestinal secretions

Cl required for amylase activity

onlh on purified or concentrated diets

reduced growth, reduced milk production, depraved appetite, emaciation

may lead to abnormal increase in alkali (bicarbonate) or alkalosis