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| Maximal Rate of Oxygen Consumption is particularly high in certain species |
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| Aerobic Scope for Activity |
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| VO2max – resting metabolic rate at the same temperature |
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| Four energy-rich molecules |
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| Four ways that cells can make ATP |
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1. Aerobic catabolism using external O2 (Kreb’s cycle and oxidative phosphorylation)
2. Anaerobic catabolism (glycolysis)
3. Anaerobic metabolism using phosphagens
4. Creatine phosphate—vertebrate muscle and invert.
5. Arginine phosphate—invertebrates
6. Aerobic catabolism using internal O2 stores (myoglobin) |
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| An animal exchanges heat with its environment by |
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| conduction, convection, evaporation, and thermal radiation |
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= k(T1 – T2)/d
where k is a constant, T1 and T2 are temperature at two locations, d = distance |
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= hc(TS – TA)
where hc is the convection coefficient,
TS is surface temperature, TA is ambient temperature
V1/2
hc = ——
D1/2 |
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| = emissivity x Stephan-Boltzman constant x TS4 |
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| Animals can acclimate by producing... |
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different forms of the same enzymes or different amounts of enzymes, particularly those involved in the Krebs cycle and glucose utilization
Often one or a few amino acid changes in enzymes outside the active site are often adequate to change temperature optimum |
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Can change the membrane fluidity of their cells by changing the phospholipid composition
More double bonds (unsaturated) acyl groups increases fluidity
More unsaturated groups found in cell membranes of cold water fish |
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| Two kinds of antifreeze molecules are produced |
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Colligative = dissolved molecule that lowers freezing point
Non-colligative = proteins that hold water to prevent the formation of an ice lattice. |
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| help to restore proper folding of proteins that were reversibly denatured by excessive heat |
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| Ways that homeotherms control body temperature |
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Overall activity
Change their set point
Change blood flow and volume
Change insulation properties—feathers, fat and fur
Shivering—muscle activity
Brown fat—uncoupled mitochondrial potential
Evaporative cooling, sweating—water loss
Panting—can increase blood pH
Saliva spreading—e.g., in rodents
Gular fluttering—birds only |
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mechanisms are used to conserve heat or to cool the brain
Heat flow is redirected to blood flowing in the opposite direction |
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| Cycling of body temperature is used to... |
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conserve energy
Circadian rhythm in core body temperature
Controlled hypothermia
Hibernation
Estivation
Torpor |
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excitable, generate action potentials (impulse, spike)
contain dendrites (input), soma, and axon (output)
large variation in size and shape
bipolar, monopolar, multipolar, or anaxonal |
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local – send axons to nearby neurons
projection – send axons to other brain areas |
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The typical neuron membrane potential is between –60 and –80 mV when the cell is at rest. Non-neuronal cells: about –30 mV
During the action potential, membrane potential briefly rises to about +10 mV and then repolarizes to the resting membrane potential. |
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| Action potentials are generated... |
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| when the membrane potential rises above threshold either spontaneously or because of depolarizing input. |
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| follows the action potential during which time the threshold for firing is higher than normal |
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| What produces the membrane potential? |
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1. The Na+/K+ ATPase (ion pump)
2. Unequal distribution of ions across the cell membrane
3. Ion channels
4. The Nernst potential |
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RT [ x ]o [ x ]o
Ex = —— ln —— Ex = 58 log ——
ZF [ x ]i [ x ]i |
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Describes membrane potential (Vm) in terms of ion permeabilities and equilibrium potentials. Results are in mV.
PK [ K +]o + PNa [ Na+]o + PCl [ Cl]i
Vm = 58 log
PK [ K +]i + PNa [ Na+]i + PCl [ Cl]o
Use 58 when at room temperature, 61 at 37o C.
P = relative permeability (divided by the K+ permeability)
Typical values: PK=1 PNa=0.01 PCl=0.2
PNa > 2 transiently during an AP |
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| Action potentials depend on |
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1. a transient inward current of ions
(Na+, Ca2+)
voltage-sensitive Na+ channel INa(v)
2. followed by an outward current (K+)
delayed rectifier Ik(v) |
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ITOTAL = INa + IK + ICa + ICl + ILEAK
At rest: IPUMP = INa + IK + ICa + ICl + ILEAK |
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| Each ion current is due to its driving force, for example: |
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| Advantages of invertebrate nervous system preparations |
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Generally hardier than vertebrates
Cells more accessible than in vertebrates
Often have identifiable neurons
Simpler circuits can be examined |
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| Advantages of vertebrate nervous system preparations |
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Show more complex behaviors than invertebrates
Results are more relevant to medicine and human issues
Several genomes have been sequenced |
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| Invertebrate nervous systems |
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Ventral, distributed
Ganglia, connectives, and nerves
Ganglion – a cluster of neurons with a central neuropile in which most synapses are found
Typically large neurons, slow action potentials, and non-myelinated axons |
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| Vertebrate nervous systems |
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Dorsal, centralized (brain)
Central nervous system (CNS)—brain & spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – ganglia & peripheral nerves
Typically small cells, fast action potentials, myelinated axons |
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| Krebs Cycle (aka Citric Acid Cycle) |
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| Used aerobic cells to generate energy through a series of chemical reactions by breaking down (and rebuilding) pyruvic acid and consuming NAD and FAD to output NADH and FADH2 in order to generate ATP. CO2 is also an output. |
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| Uncoupling Proteins (UCP1) |
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| channels that allow protons back through a cell gradient without spending ATP. |
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| Oxidative Phosphorylation |
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| The process of forming ATP from ADP by use of energy released in the transport of electrons through the electron transport chain. |
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| linkage of electron transport with oxidative phosphorylation |
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the understanding of how electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation are coupled/uncoupled.
1. Proton pumping by electron-transport chain complexes. (H+ output at Complexes I, III, IV.
2. The proton electrochemical gradient: an energy store. (More H+ in the Intermembrane space than in the core)
3. Back-diffusion of protons in an ordinary cell. (ATP synthase brings in an H+ to create ATP from ADP.)
4. Back-diffusion of protons in a specialized cell with UCP1. (allows H+ back into the cell without using ATP synthase and only generates heat.) |
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| activated cytokines which mobilize the immune system. |
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| is found in babies. Loaded w/ mitochondria in order to generate heat. |
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| is a lipid store, cushion, and part of the endocrine system. Believed to be involved with inflammation fighting. |
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| energy storage compounds, also known as high-energy phosphate compounds, are chiefly found inmuscular tissue in animals. |
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| = cells that replace muscle cells |
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| cells that becomes myocytes |
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| cause muscle contractions |
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Glycolytic – twitch quickly
Oxidative – twitch slowly. More powerful, used for sustained activity |
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| resting phase of animals when environmental conditions aren’t ideal. Seen in many insect eggs, larvae, pupae. A form of metabolic shutdown |
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| the ability of a surface’s ability to emit energy by radiation |
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| enzymes that differ in amino acid sequence but catalyze the same reaction |
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| is also used to prevent extracellular ice formation. This is the process of lowering a temperature of a liquid or gas below the freezing point |
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| Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) |
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| are detected by the Vagus nerve to inform the brain of infection resulting in a fever and other autoimmune responses |
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causes the CO2 in your system to reduce which lessens the carbonic acid buffer. This buffer maintains the pH, and with it reduced the body becomes more basic.
o CO2 + H2O = carbonic acid |
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| a disorder where a person hyperventilates similar to a dog panting |
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| a state of inactivity and metabolic depression in animals w/ lowered body temp, slower breathing and slow metabolic rate |
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| Period similar to hibernation, but for animals in hot environmental conditions |
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| state of decreased physiological activity in animals characterized by reduced body temp/rate of metabolism. Birds, small mammals do this. Runs on a daily cycle. |
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| a mass of nerve cell bodies |
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| ganglion found in squid used for vision |
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| innervates muscles in the mantle and controls the jet propelled escape response in a squid |
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| small ganglia in each segment of an earthworm that are connected by the ventral nerve cord running down the ventral side. |
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| the main cord in the nervous system of invertebrates. Located on the ventral side. Connects segmental ganglion |
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| part of nervous system that integrates the info it receives and coordinates the activities of all parts of a bilateral animal’s body. Consists of brain and spinal cord |
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| Peripheral Nervous System – |
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| nerves and ganglia outside of brain and spinal cord. Purpose is to connect the limbs and organs to the Central Nervous System |
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| long, slender projection of a nerve cell that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body (soma). Surrounded my Myelin sheath. |
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| short even in which the electrical membrane potential of a cell rapidly rises and falls. |
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| cells that secrete hormones directly into the blood stream to regulate the body. It Is an information signaling cell similar to a cell of the nervous system. |
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| the branched projections coming off the soma of a neuron that conduct the electrochemical signals from other cells to the cell body |
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| the bulbous end of a neuron containing the cell nucleus. |
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| dendrites on one side, axon opposite |
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| Input + Output on same side of cell |
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| dendrites enter from all directions. Frequent in cortical neurons |
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| no axon. Input w/ no output. Similar to retinal cells |
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| cells that form the myelin sheath around the Axon. |
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| delicate threads running through the cytoplasm of a nerve cell that extends into the axon and dendrites which gives the neuron support and shape |
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| material made of endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes that is in nerve cell bodies and dendrites. |
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| space inside ganglion where neurons make connections |
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| nerves that emerge direction from the brain. 12 pairs traditionally in humans. |
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| long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells extending from the brain. |
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| – fold in the brain of humans separating the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe |
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| – primary motor area of the cerebral cortex. |
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| – at front of each cerebral hemisphere in front of parietal lobe. Contains most the dopamine sensitive neurons in the cerebral cortex. The area that “thinks” so to speak. Makes decisions. |
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| – used for auditory perception. Contains hippocampus and plays a function in long term memory. |
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| structure in the brain stem that conducts signals from the cerebrum to the cerebellum and medulla, as well as carries sensory signals to thalamus. |
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| lower half of brain stem. Responsible for involuntary functions (breathing, heart rate, etc) |
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| Plays a role in motor control as well as some cognitive functions, as well as regulating fear/pleasure responses. Doesn’t contribute to movement, just spatially and temporally coordinates it. |
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| – integrates different sensory info to determine spatial sense and navigation. |
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| – primary sensory area of the cerebral cortex |
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