Anatomy: the study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another

Physiology: concerns the function of the bodies physical components and studies how body parts carry out life sustaining functions

-cellular, organ system, and pathophysiology

EPITHELIAL TISSUE: specialized for protection, metabolism, and transport

Muscle Tissue: specialized for production of mechanical force to induce pressure and provide movement

Nervous Tissue: the generation and transmission of electrical signals used to control body functions

Connective Tissue: a diverse group designed to support or interconnect other tissues

Organ: combination of two or more primary tissues, organized in such a way to preform a specific bodily function

ex. the stomach

system: a group of organs working together to accomplish a physiological task

integumentary system (hair, skin, nails)

skeletal system (bone, cartilage)

cardiovascular system (bone marrow, capillaries, heart, veins)

respritory system (lungs, bronchai, trachids, nasal cavity)

muscular system

nervous system

digestive system

urinary system

endocrine system

immune system

male/ female reproductive systems

the tendency of the living body to maintain its internal environment (blood temp, body fluids) at a relatively constant physical and chemical state in the face of constant external change

- implies existance of control systems to moderate changes

variable: the chemical or physical condition which can be changed or controlled

sensor: the device that monitors the state or level of that variable

controller: a device that compares the real value of the variable to the set point (optimum value) and sends an error message if the 2 fail to match

Effector: a device that can change the state or level of the variable in response to the controller

temp rises: nerve activity constricts blood vessels in skin to save heat as well as causes shivering to  generate heat

temp falls: nere activity dialates bloodvessels in skin to promote heat loss as well as causes sweating

1) body plan maintains a small size or particular shape so that all or most of the body cells are in direct contact with the environment

ex. sponges, hydras, nematodes

2) development of circulatory system: cmposed of a pump and series of tubes that can move fluid from the organisms immediate environment through it to the tissue or organ responsible for gas exchange or nutrient

- open and closed systems

open: contains an open tubular heart

closed contains a closed heart system using blood

Single circulation: 2 chamber heart pumps blood to o2 pickup and moves slowly due to pressure ex. fish

double circulation: 3 chamber heart/ seperation of ventricle and atria in mammals and birds resulting in more efficient o2 delivery for active organisms

1) fluid transport medium => BLOOD

2) directional pump => HEART W/ VALVES

3) distribution system=> FORCE RESISTENT BLOOD VESSELS

4) mechanism for nutrient and waste exchange => THIN WALLED CAPPILARY BED

what are the 10 main functions of blood?

1) transport of nutrients

2) transport of metabolites

3) transport of cells

4) transport of excretory processes

5) transport of gasses

6) transport of hormones

7) transport of heat

8) transmission of force

9)coagulation

10) maintance of the mileau interior

1) kidneys detect reduced O2 in the blood

2) secrete hormone erythropoietin into blood

3) stimulates production of RBCs in bone marrow

4)increases circulating O2 in blood

5) increased o2 relieves secretion of hormone

1)  SA node electrical signal starts atrial contraction

2) signal spreads causing atria to contract

3) av node transmits signal to ventricles

4) signal travels between bundle branches to base of ventricles

5) Purkinje fibers transmits signals to ventricular cardiac muscle causing contraction from base upward

cardiac output: amount of blood pumped per minute

determined by heart rate (~72bpm at rest), stroke volume, and cardiac output at rest

Heart Rate: altered by nervous system stimulation ex. accelerans nerve speeds up rate vagus nerve decreases rate and hormonal effects from epinephrine (adrenaline)

Stroke volume: adrenaline increases strength of contraction, increased venous return espands heart chambers

Arteries: carry blood away from the heart and are more muscular

veins: bring low pressure blood back to the heart

1) pressure forces fluid from plasma at arteriola end of capillary network

2) Interstitial fluid enters lymph vessels and venous end of capillaries

3)Lymph is transported into larger lymph vessels and back into blood stream

1) regulatable access to atmospheric gasses (ventilation)

2) exchange between air and blood (external respiration)

3) transport of respritory gasses (with circulation)

4) exchange between blood and tissue (internal respiration)

What is Hemoglobin and how does it deliver oxygen to cells?

hemoglobin:  4 subunit protein that each subunit can carry one o2 molecule

1) take up directly from environment

2) via water flowing through their "gut" tube

1) Dendrites: receive info from  another neuron

2) cell body: contains nucleus andmost cell organelles

3) axon hillock: integrates information collected by dendrites and initiates action potentials

4) axon: conducts action potentials away from cell body

5) Axon terminals: synapses with a target cell

1) unipolar neuron: sensory

2) bipolar neuron: special sense organ

3) multipolar neuron: motor functions

Membrane semipermeability

2 types

Macromolecules: large charged particles such as proteins are trapped on one side at cell pH and are usually negatively charged

concentration cell : biological membranes have different permeabilities to inorganic ions which can lead to uneven distribution as multiple ions try to balance both concentration and electrical gradients

1) 3 Na+ and 1 atp molecules bind to potassium pump

2) Adp released causing change in pump shape

3) 3 Na+ released as 2 K- bind to pump

4) Pi released causing pump shape to change again and 2 k- released

1) polar substance more concentrated on outside of cell than hydrophobic interior of bilayer inside the cell

2) binding of a stimulus molecule to a protein causes channel to open

3) polar substance diffuses across membrane

1) maintains flow of Na+ inward and K+ outward

2) at rest Na+ flow completely blocked whereas some K+ gates remain open

3) results in negative ions remaining in cells have resting potential of -70mV

Action Potential in Nerve Cells

4 steps

1) voltage gated channels open allowing Na+ to rush in giving the cell a positive charge

2) Na+ able to open "doors" to make its way down the axon

3) as Na+ passes "active zone" positive ions left behind are released

4) ion returns to negatively charged state

1) the wider the diameter of axon, the less resistance to sideways flow of Na+ ions and thus activation of volted Na+ channel

ex. invertebrates

2) saltatory conduction: based on presence of insulating myelin sheath to speed conduction from node to node

ex. vertebrates and organisms with  complex behavioral functions

Synaptic events and parts

4 steps

1) action potential arrives at axon terminal

2) Na+ cause Ca2+ channels to open allowing Ca2+ to enter

3) Ca2+ triggers fusion of acetylocholine vesicles with presynaptic membrane

4) bind to receptors with post synaptic membrane and are recycled

Acetylcholine (ACh): causes skeletal and muscle contractions

Epinepherine and norepinepherine: speeds heartrate, dialates pupils and airways to lungs, increases anxiety

dopamine:reduces excitory effects of other neurotransmitters; roles in memory, learning, and fine motor control

serotonin: elevates mood, role in memory

GABA: inhibits release of other neurotransmittors

Excitatory: depolarizations bringing membrane potential closer to threshold

inhibitory: hyperpolarizations bringing membrane potential farther from threshold

Temporal: uptakes EPSP only A resulting in getting to membrane potential faster and a smooth jolt

Spatial: uptakes EPSP A and B and IPSP C which results in it taking longer to reach membrane potential

-A+B cause spatial summation before peak and spacial summation of A+C occurs after the peak

Electrical Synapse qualities and functions

4 things

1) composed of gap junctions between cells

2) gap junction "pore" allows ions to free flow from cell to cell and thus transfer action potential

3) can send uni or bidirectional signals

4) seen in few CNS cells and are common link of smooth cardiac and muscle cells

Chemical Synapse Structure

5 things

1) speed => fast controlled by nervous system; slow controlled by endocrine system

2) size of target => small- single cell to cell groups controlled by nervous system; large- tissue to entire body controlled by endocrine system

3) signal type => electrical employed by nervous system; chemical employed by endocrine system

1) characterize type of stimulus input

2) determine signal intensity and gage output

3) receive and integrate stimuli from multiple sources

4) initiate and direct appropriate responses

smallest, simpliest portion of nervous system and act as rapid homeostasis controls

contain a sensory receptor (initiates signal),sensory afferant neuron (transmits impulse to CNS), interneuron (pass signal from afferant to efferant neuron), efferant motor neuron (passes throughperipheral nerves to bring signal to effector organ), effector organ (muscle, galnd etc.) to respond to problem

Nervous System evolution

4 steps

1) nerve nets in radially symmetic organisms composed of multiple interconnected neurons throughout the body, concentrated at important organs

2) introduction of nerves which are composed of multiple interconnected neurons extending throughout the animal body where individual axons exit from bundle at intervals to interact with other nerve nets => rapid and efficient communication

3) evolution of bilaterally symmetric organisms caused cephalization (expansion of ganglion of nervous system at anterior end) and a nerve cord (giant nerve bundle) which expands from head to posterior containing neurons that extend out to interact with nerve nets

4) in bilaterally segmented and symmetrical animals patterns are extended

How did the nervous system for bilaterally symmetrical and segmented animals form?

3 things

1) anterior ganglions expand and fuse to form brain

2) longitutal nerve cord either breaks into segments with ganglion inbetween or branches to interact with a series of ganglion segments that run parallel to it

-in 2nd case each ganglion composed of cell bodies of segment specific neurons and the terminal knobs of cord neurons interacting with it

3) speration of central vs peripheral nervous systems

** invertebrates have ventral nerve chord vertebrates have dorsal nerve chord**

Central nervous system contains peripheral nervous system

PNS contains somatic (sensory) and autonomic (ANS) nervous systems

ANS  contains sympathetic and parasympathetic systems

series of folds called gyri and seperated by divisions called sulci to increase surface area and pack as many neurons as possible in one place

located in the forebrain along with the diencephalon

Prefrontal region believed to be site of consciousness, learning, "higher associations"

motor cortex posterior region of frontal lobe associated with skeletal muscle control

Paretial=back lateral side of brain and contains the somasensory area (touch, pain, pressure, et. al)

temporal= houses auditory (outer) and olfactory (inner) areas (hearing and smell)

Insular= below paretial lobe deep to temporal houses taste sensation

Occipital= optic vision center

thalamus: sensory relay station and participates in skeletal muscle control

hypothalamus: composed of series of brain nuclei and is the homeostasis control center

- regulates through Pituitary gland and in autonomic system relay stations in the medulla

Contains series of communication tracks between thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala

1) coordinates activities of cerebrum and diencephalon

2) coordinates basic perception with physiological reactions to apply basic emotionalcontent to the perceptions ex. hunger, fear, anger, pleasure (amygdala responses)

3) conversion of short term memory to long term memory in hippcampus

1) Midbrain/ Pons: areas of dense nerve tracts that interconnect the body and medulla with the forebrain

2) medulla oblongata: contains many of control and integratin centers for many body systems ex. cardiovascular/ respritory

- also coordinates between hypothalamus and peripheral components of autonomic nervous system

3) reticular formation: communicates info from the body to the forebrain and coordinates functions

- filters sensory info = ability to regulate sleep and assess importance of incoming info

4) Cerebellum: coordinates skeletal muscle movement and maintains posture and balance

afferant: nerves running to CNS (sensory)

efferant: nerves running from CNS (motor)

Somatic: nerves supplying the skin (sensory) and skeletal muscles (motor)

-actions taken by this system are mostly under conscious control

Autonomic: composed of nerve fibers supplying the bodies internal organs

-shares many afferant sensory nerves

-seperate efferant motor nerves usually 2 neurons between CNS and organ and functions independently of conscious control

Parasympathetic: composed of cranial and sacral nerves; releases neurotransmitter actycholine involved in the stimulationand maintance of all physiologic functions of a person at rest "resting and digesting system"

sympathetic: composed of thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves; releases noradrenaline to get body ready for "fight or flight" situations = ups stimulation to systems parasympathetic system depressed and downs stimulation to systems parasympathetic system stimulates

innate= continuously active and not specifically directed at particular pathogens

1) a barrier exoskeleton

2) series of attack cells hemocytes which circulate body fluids for attackers

1) nonspecific physical and chemical barriers

2) nonspecific internal defense including inflamation and repair

3)The Specific or Immune response. This includes the “Humoral” response in which antibodies or other immune cell products participate in the Chemical neutralization of pathogenic cells or their products and “cell mediated immunity” in which Attack (Killer) cells destroy invaders or deranged body cells.

signaling molecule that...

1) initiates a pain response

2) warns local cells of injury with prostaglandin

3) activates mast cells which activates the inflammatory response by releasing hystamine which opens capillaries so defense cells can be released

4) platelets clot blood to  reduce loss

5) repair cells heal area

1) vasodilation increases bloodflow to area (redness)

2) capillary permeability increasees allowing plasma fluid (swelling) and proteins and WBCs to enter area

3) chemical and/or phagocytic killing of invader

4) repair of damaged area

1) T-Cells = mature outside bone marrow; helpers activate immune response; supressor inhibits immune response at end; killer seek out and destroy infected cells; memory contain pathogen info

2) B-Cells= mature inside bone marrow and gain only one immunoglobulin/ antibodies which can only specifically bind to only one chemical antigen; resting display antibody as a receptor that when activated divide and produce plasma cells to attack invader; after attack small portion of memory b cells left in case of attacks in the near future

3) NK Cells: attacks deranged cells (cancer cells) by causing them to commit suicide

1) activation of the compliment system via antibodies bonding to invader and activates C1 to produce MAC which destroys the membrane of the invader

2) Direct enhancement of phagocytosis via binding site for macrophage to draw phagocytes to intruder to be engulfed

3) antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity: shaft also attracts nk cells by killing the invader using perforin

4) Direct neutralization of bacterial toxins and viruses: multiple binding sites for antigens allow for clumping and faster phagocytosis