Term
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Definition
| selection due to differential access to mates |
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Term
| two main aspects of sexual selection |
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Definition
intra-sexual selection
intersexual selection |
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Term
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Definition
| selection arising within a given sex due to competition among members of the same sex (usually male) for access to the other sex |
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Term
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Definition
| selection due to choice of mates by the opposite sex - usually choice of males by females |
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Term
the major factor in sexual selection is what?
who proposed this theory? |
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Definition
the difference between the sexes when it comes to parental investment
Trivers (1972) |
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Term
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Definition
| any investment (time, energy, risk) that decreases individual's chance of future reproduction |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
in what ways do females invest in their offspring?
what is the most energetically costly investment for females? |
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Definition
gamete size (larger than sperm, but comparatively small in mammals)
gestation
lactation (most energetically costly) |
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Term
| what are the two proposed types of factors for female mate choices? |
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Definition
material benefits
genetic benefits |
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Term
| material benefits (with examples) |
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Definition
- resources controlled/provided by the male
example:
in songbirds the male controls territory that provides food for female while incubating eggs & feeding young
- parental care from the male
example: courtship feeding in insects, male incubation/feeding/guarding of young |
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Term
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Definition
"good genes"
based on the idea that a high quality male will produce high quality offspring (hard to prove) |
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Term
| what is a major problem in terms of genetic benefits as a basis for mate choice? |
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Definition
the heritability of fitness is expected to be low
genes with a major beneficial effect on fitness should quickly become fixed in a population |
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Term
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Definition
| the occurrence of continuous genetic variation in spite of consistent female preference for certain traits |
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Term
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Definition
an area where males of a certain species display and females come to mate
example:
Topi antelopes |
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Term
What is a possible explanation for the lex paradox?
Who first proposed this explanation? |
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Definition
there is a non-zero heritability of fitness because many species are involved in co-evolutionary races with parasites which could give rise to frequency-dependent selection
proposed by Hamilton & Zuk |
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Term
| T/F: the selection on immune system genes is frequency-dependent |
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Definition
| FALSE: the selection on immune system genes is mostly heterozygote-advantageous |
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Term
| most mutations that have a phenotypic effect are of what kind of mutation? |
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Definition
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Term
| how do "good" or "bad" genes factor into mate choice? |
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Definition
- there is little evidence that "good genes" are commonly found in real populations
- mate choice may be based on avoiding "bad genes" rather than choosing "good genes" |
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Term
| in non-lek forming species, female choice of mates shows what kind of trend? |
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Definition
| a positive correlation between material and genetic benefits |
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Term
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Definition
| the male's ability to defend territory |
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Term
| how is resource-holding power related to genetic quality? |
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Definition
| positively correlated (if there even is any variation in genetic quality) |
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Term
| what hypotheses could explain the situation where males at the center of a lek have more matings than males at the periphery? |
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Definition
- males at the center have a higher "genetic quality"; their position is an honest indicator of male genetic quality
- female choice is arbitrary
- females mate more efficiently by choosing males at the lek's center |
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Term
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Definition
| prolonged, essentially exclusive pair bond with a member of opposite sex for reproduction and rearing of young |
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Term
| monogamy is rare in animals aside from what group? |
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Definition
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Term
| T/F: monogamy implies a social and genetic aspect |
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Definition
FALSE:
social monogamy may not necessarily include genetic monogamy
gamete fertilization occurs outside of the social pair bond in many socially monogamous speies |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| one female, many males (rare) |
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Term
| what is a common trait of monogamous bird species that pair for life? (give examples) |
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Definition
| they are long-lived species (ex eagles, geese, some parrots) |
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Term
| T/F: monogamous bird species often pair for multiple seasons or for life |
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Definition
FALSE:
most monogamous bird species pair for only one season |
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Term
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Definition
| classification where by staying with the female, the male prevents her from breeding with other males |
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Term
| assistance monogamy (male) (with examples) |
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Definition
classification where the male provides parental care or protection for young
examples: birds, prairie voles, sea horses |
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Term
| ecologically enforced monogamy (with example) |
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Definition
classification based on ecological factors that cause females to be widely dispersed
example: rock-hunting possum |
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Term
| clasification of monogamous systems are based on what? |
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Definition
| selective factors favoring monogamy |
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Term
| what type of monogamous system is most often seen in bird species? |
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Definition
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Term
| examples of female-enforced monogamy |
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Definition
burying beetle:
the female will try to prevent the male from releasing signals to attract a second female after reproducing |
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Term
| female-defense polygyny (with examples) |
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Definition
when females occur in defensible clusters and males compete for control of clusters of females ("harem polygyny")
examples:
many hoofed animals, Montezuma oropeudola (males defend clusters of nesting females in a nesting tree; if females move to another tree the male will follow) |
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Term
| resource defense polygyny (with examples) |
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Definition
when males defend territory including resources that the female needs for reproduction (food, nest sites) and females choose the territory based on the quality of resources
examples:
redwing blackbird (males defend territories where females nest but dont provide parental care in most populations)
long-horned beetle |
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Term
| scramble competition polygyny (with example) |
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Definition
a type of explosive breeding assemblage
example:
example: wood frogs (mating only a few nights each year, where males will try to mate with as many females as possible) |
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Term
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Definition
a classification where males display at a display area (lek) and females come to mate
the males provide no resources or parental care |
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Term
| what characteristic is usually associated with polyandry? (with example) |
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Definition
"role reversal" - the male usually provides the parental care
example: resource-defense polyandry in the Jacanas bird family |
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Term
| ruff-bird example of alternative male mating strategies |
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Definition
ruff bird is a lek-forming species
dominant males will let "sneaky" satellite males on the lek, not recognizing them as a threat; this allows satellite males to mate |
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Term
| describe the western mosquito swordfish example of alternative male mating behaviors |
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Definition
| there are "summer" and "winter" males: "summer" males - small, use 'sneaky' copulation "winter" males - large, use typical courtship behaviors, survive longer |
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Term
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Definition
| when a mature and immature male are raised together, the immature male will continue to grow and develop until it surpasses the mature male size at which point it will stop growing |
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Term
| T/F: the Borowsky effect is an example of phenotypic plasticity |
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Definition
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Term
| what is the purpose behind male mating behavior? |
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Definition
| it leads to gamete fertilization |
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Term
| types of gamete fertilization |
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Definition
external fertilization
spermatophore transfer
cloacal contact
employment of intromittent organ |
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Term
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Definition
| when the male deposits sperm on eggs outside of the female's body |
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Term
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Definition
| when the male produces a capsule containing sperm and either deposits it in the female's genital opening or lets the female take up the spermatophore, sometimes guided by the male |
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Term
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Definition
when the male places his cloaca (opening to genital, urinary and digestive tract) up against the females
(memory aid: "anaconda" educational version) |
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Term
| intromittent organ fertilization |
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Definition
"traumatic insemination"
the male injects sperm into the female abdomen, which travels through hemolymph to the ovaries
example: bedbugs |
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Term
| what are the two components of male sexual behavior? |
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Definition
- motivational component (libido)
- performance component (involves libido and motor patterns; a learned component in mammals) |
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Term
| effects of domestication on components of male sexual behavior |
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Definition
- natural selection for ability to compete with other males is relaxed
- artificial selection for agriculturally useful traits may have pleiotropic effects on traits related to sexual performance
- artificial insemination relaxes the selection on performance |
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Term
| what is the result of domestication on sexual behavior in animals? |
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Definition
| a high heritability of sexual performance in most species |
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Term
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Definition
number of ejaculations per unit time
includes both libido and performance |
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Term
| T/F: measuring libido removes the effect of performance |
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Definition
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Term
| in mammals, sexual receptivity and accompanying female behaviors follow what pattern? |
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Definition
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Term
| steps of the female reproductive cycle |
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Definition
- secretion of gonadotropin hormone (GnRH) by hypothalamus
- GnRH activates anterior pituitary to secrete FSH
- FSH stimulates growth of 1+ ovarian follicles
- follicles secrete an increasing amount of estrogen
- estrogen triggers receptivity and prepares reproductive tract for sperm transport, followed by a surge of LH from anterior pituitary to trigger ovulation
- after ovulation, female receptivity decreases & terminates
- progesterone secretion from corpus luteum increases, prepares uterus for implantation |
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Term
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Definition
| period of female sexual receptivity around the time of ovulation ("heat") |
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Term
| patterns of estrus in mammals |
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Definition
monoestrous
polyestrous
seasonally polyestrous |
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Term
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Definition
| one period of estrus/year |
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Term
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Definition
| multiple periods of estrus/year |
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Term
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Definition
| multiple periods of estrus/year, confined to one breeding season |
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Term
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Definition
| the introduction of a male or of male secretions (olfactory cues) can facilitate the onset of estrus in many mammal species |
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Term
| what is the most important behavioral manifestation of ovulation & sexual receptivity in mammals? how can this signalbe communicated? |
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Definition
| - the female's willingness to stand immobile for male to mount - females will emit chemical cues in urine & vaginal secretions (aided by vaginal microbes) and show receptivity traits (ex tail raising) to communicate willingness - male will test female's readiness to stand immobile |
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Term
| T/F: in most animal species, the female will provide parental care |
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Definition
FALSE:
neither parent will provide parental care in most animal species
in species that do provide parental care, however, the female is often the one involved |
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Term
| what is the cost-benefit analysis of parental care? |
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Definition
benefit: enhanced offspring survival
cost: loss of energy that could be used to produce more offspring; decreased parent survival |
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Term
| what two hypotheses explain the higher tendency of females to provide parental care? which hypothesis is more likely? |
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Definition
- the female has already made a large initial investment through gestation, so continuing parental care can ensure the investment isn't wasted
- the benefit of parental care is often lower for males than for females
the second hypothesis is more likely/better supported |
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Term
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Definition
| the male's degree of certainty that he is the father |
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Term
| how does the confidence of paternity relate to parental care? |
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Definition
the benefit to the male will be reduced or eliminated if the young he cares for were sired by other male;
parental care is more common in instances with a higher confidence of paternity |
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Term
| which type of fertilization shows a higher confidence of paternity, internal or external? |
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Definition
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Term
| preparturient behavior (with example) |
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Definition
behavior of the female preceding birth of offspring (parturition)
example: nesting behaviors |
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Term
| what signals stimulate parental attachment and recognition? |
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Definition
oxytocin: stimulates maternal behavior
odor/taste of amniotic fluid: becomes attractive to the mother shortly before parturition; stimulates maternal grooming |
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Term
| the experiment with sheep to determine the sensitive period for maternal responsiveness in animals discovered what behaviors? |
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Definition
- maternal responsiveness to any young doesn't last long, a few hours in some species
- maternal experience facilitates expression of female responsiveness to young
- the sensitive period for maternal responsiveness to any young ends when the female has interacted with a newborn; this interaction can be very brief
- contact with newborn is necessary for maintaining maternal responsiveness
- olfaction is very important for maintenance of maternal responsiveness |
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Term
| social groups found in nature |
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Definition
- non-breeding aggregations
- breeding aggregations
- parent/pairs caring for young
- matrilineal groups
- cooperative breeding unit
- eusociality
- non-breeding "castes" |
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Term
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Definition
- defense against predators
- mutual assistance in dealing with diseases and parasites
- improved foraging by info sharing
- access to mates (especially useful for subordinate males) |
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Term
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Definition
- more conspicuous to predators
- more opportunities for transmission of infectious diseases & parasites among group members
- competition for food & resources among members
- reduced paternity confidence if group includes multiple adult males
- female vulnerability to reproductive interference by other females |
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Term
| helpful behavior types & effects |
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Definition
mutualism/cooperation: D(+) R(+)
reciprocity: D(+delayed) R(+)
selfish behavior: D(+) R(-)
spiteful behavior: D(-) R(-) |
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Term
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Definition
- cooperative hunting in lion prides
- reciprocity in vampire bats (sharing meals)
- paired mating displays in long-tailed manakin (alpha & beta roles) |
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Term
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Definition
- seen in most eusocial insects
non-reproductive "castes" of workers, soldiers, etc that produce no offspring but work to benefit the colony |
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Term
| Darwin proposed artificial selection of traits found in non-reproducing animals from what source? |
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Definition
| close relatives of the non-reproducing animals (will result in analogy) |
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Term
| what is the inclusive fitness theory of kin selection? who proposed it? |
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Definition
the idea that behavior which helps non-descendant relatives, even at a cost to the donor, can be selectively favored under certain circumstances since the individual is likely to share genes with close kin
proposed by Hamilton (1964) |
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Term
| coefficient of relatedness (r) |
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Definition
| the probability that an allele in one individual is present in another individual, because both individuals have inherited it from a recent common ancestor |
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Term
what is the coefficient of relatedness (r) between....
parent & offspring
full siblings
half-siblings
aunt/uncle and niece/nephew
first cousins |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
altruistic behavior can evolve if (b/c) > (1/r), where (in terms of individual fitness):
b = benefit to recipient
c = cost to donor |
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Term
| in terms of hamilton's rule, what must (b/c) be for altruistic behavior to emerge between full siblings? |
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Definition
| 2 -- r between full siblings is 1/2 |
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Term
| haplodiploid system of sex determination |
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Definition
| the situation in which men are haploid and females are diploid |
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Term
| what is (r) for a haplodiploid system of sex determination between sisters and between parent/offspring? |
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Definition
3/4 between sisters
1/2 between parent/offspring |
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Term
| how does alarm-calling relate to altruistic behavior? (with example) |
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Definition
alarm-callers have a higher mortality rate due to predation
example: in belding's ground squirrel populations, adult females with nearby relatives were more likely to give alarm calls (this behavior can be compared to expected behavior via hamilton's rule) |
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Term
| inclusive fitness consists of the sum of what two factors? |
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Definition
| an individual's direct fitness (own offspring) and indirect fitness (offspring of close relatives) |
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Term
| behavioral "strategies" usually include which type(s) of fitness benefits? |
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Definition
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Term
| what kind of helpers can be seen in the example of pied kingfishers? |
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Definition
- primary: yearling males that directly help their own parents, usually by bringing food, defending against predators, etc
- secondary: yearling males that help an unrelated pair but do relatively little
- delayer: not involved in breeding in the first year |
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Term
in the pied kingfisher example, which of the helpers has the greatest fitness benefit....
in the first year?
in the second year?
both years (inclusive fitness benefit)? |
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Definition
primary helper
secondary helper
primary helper |
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Term
which example of eusocial insects....
- store sperm from fall mating to fertilize eggs later in the season, and kill eggs laid by workers?
- immobilize any workers that challenge the queen?
- have a (r) that equals 10 due to parthenogenesis?
- form a "gall" in which 40% of individuals but only 2% of soldiers come from another gall?
- employ a single queen and 1 or more kings (diploid system)?
- has soldier castes that may reproduce slowly, sexually, or not at all? |
|
Definition
- paper wasps (Hymenoptera)
- great peruvian ant (Dinoponeria quadriceps)
- certain aphids
- Pemphigus obesinymphae
- termites
- certain aphids |
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Term
| T/F: kin selection is sufficient to explain evolution of all complex social organizations |
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Definition
FALSE:
high relatedness is not always seen in eusocial groups |
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Term
|
Definition
| behaviors related to a conflict |
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Term
| types of agonistic behavior |
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Definition
- displays expressing dominance or threat
- displays expressing submissiveness
- offensive and defensive fighting
- avoidance behaviors |
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Term
| what was the major underlying reason for evolving displays that achieve the same result as combat? |
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Definition
| physical combat is a relatively costly way to deal with competition over a resource, while displays require little energy and risk of injury |
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Term
| dominance displays serve to do what? how do they achieve this? |
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Definition
- intimidate others of the same species while avoiding conflict
- dominance displays incorporate visual components that display the animal's body size |
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Term
| in comparing dominance vs. submission displays, what principle is illustrated? |
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Definition
| Darwin's principle of antithesis |
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Term
| give an example of a "weapon" used in dominance displays |
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Definition
| bared teeth, especially canines |
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Term
| which signal used in dominance displays can be "honest" if correlated to body size? |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| a display that reduces the likelihood of attack by another individual of the same species, which tends to reduce the animal's profile of conspicuousness |
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Term
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Definition
| when a subordinate may display their weapons to remind the dominant of the potential cost of attack |
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Term
| "ritualized" struggle (with example) |
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Definition
combat between two members of the same species in which weapons are not used directly, as fighting can be too expensive/risky to both participants
example: horned animals will butt heads to determine relative strength |
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Term
| factors affecting threshold for agonistic behaviors |
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Definition
genetics
experience
play
context
relative size |
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Term
| T/F: prolonged physical contact is necessary to establish dominant/subordinate relationship, regardless of individual characteristics |
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Definition
| FALSE: not necessary if the difference in size/strength of individuals is significant |
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Term
|
Definition
an attribute of a relationship between two or more individuals, achieved and maintained by agonistic behavior
expressed by the ability of one animal to displace another animal in some way |
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|
Term
| a dominance hierarchy is a property of _____ |
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Definition
|
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Term
| dominance based on territoriality show what characteristic? |
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Definition
| site-specificity; dominance is dependent on where the interaction takes place |
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Term
|
Definition
- the simplest form of dominance
- when one individual is dominant over all others with no rank distinction among subordinates |
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Term
| what is the most common form of dominance hierarchy? |
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Definition
| multiple ranks in a more or less linear order |
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Term
| what kind of pattern emerges in dominance hierarchies as groups get bigger? |
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Definition
| a more or less linear hierarchy with one or more deviations |
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Term
| what factors do dominance hierarchies depend on? |
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Definition
- individuals must be able to recognize each other
- stability is dependent on continued reinforcement of dominant/subordinate relations by agonistic displays
- group integrity |
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Term
| factors affecting dominance |
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Definition
- sex
- size
- fighting ability
- weapons |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency for the introduction of an unfamiliar individual to increase the frequency and integrity of agonistic behaviors until the newcomer's rank is decided |
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Term
| T/F: it is common for animal populations to establish hierarchies based on sex |
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Definition
| TRUE: there are often separate hierarchies for males and females of a population |
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Term
| based on the experiments with pairs of dairy cattle, which characteristics were most important in determining dominance? |
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Definition
horns were of major primary importance
weight was of secondary importance |
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